EXAM 1 Flashcards
What is anatomy?
The scientific study of structure
What is physiology?
The scientific study of body function
What is gross anatomy? What are the 3 subdivisions?
The study of structures with the naked eye. You don’t need a microscope. * There are 3 subdivisions of gross anatomy: regional, systemic and surface.
What is regional anatomy?
Study of structures belonging to a particular region.
What is systemic anatomy?
The study of structures belonging to a specific system.
What are the 6 levels of organization?
Chemical, cellular, tissues, organs, organ systems, and organisms.
What is the first level of organization?
Chemical level
What is the chemical level?
It’s the first level of organization. Made of atoms and molecules.
What is the second level of organization?
Cellular level
What is the cellular level?
It’s the second level of organization, but the first level of life. Life begins at the cells. Basic structural and functional units are cells.
What is the third level of organization?
Tissues
What are tissues?
They are groups of cells with similar structure and functions.
How many types of tissues are there? What are they?
There are 4 types. They are epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscle.
What is the fourth level of organization?
Organs
What are organs?
They are the fourth level of organization. Groups of 2-4 tissues make an organ.
How many named organs are in the human body?
93
What is the fifth level of organization?
Organ systems
What is an organ system?
It’s the fifth level of organization. An organ system consists of organs that have similar or related functions.
How many organ systems are there? What are the different organ systems?
- Integumentary, skeletal, muscular, digestive, reproductive, urinary, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, endocrine, and nervous.
What are the main organs in the integumentary system?
Skin, hair, glands, nails and epidermis.
What are the main functions of the integumentary system?
It acts as a physical barrier. It’s protects your body from bacteria, infection, injury, and sunlight. Other functions include body temp regulation, cell fluid maintenance, vitamin D synthesis, and detection of stimuli.
What are the main organs in the skeletal system?
The axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.
What are the main functions of the skeletal system?
Support the body and body movement, protect the internal organs, and a reservoir of minerals.
The human body is composed of ___ bones.
206
What are the main organs of the muscular system?
Skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle.
What are the main functions of the muscular system?
Movement, stability, control of body openings and passages, heat production, hormone secretion, and glycemic control.
How many muscles are in the human muscular system?
600
What are the main organs of the nervous system?
The brain, spinal cord, and nerves (cranial nerves and spinal nerves).
What are the main organs of the endocrine system?
The glands, tissues, and cells that secrete hormones.
What are the 2 subdivision the nervous system?
The central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
What are the main functions of the endocrine system?
It works closely with the nervous system to regulate and integrate body processes and maintain homeostasis. It does this by use of hormones.
What are the main functions of the nervous system?
It works with the endocrine system to regulate and process body functions and maintain homeostasis by use of electrical impulses. The nervous system is the major controlling, regulatory, and communicating system in the body.
What are the main organs of the male reproductive system?
Testes (in the scrotum), excretory glands, and penis
What are the main functions of the male reproductive system?
To secrete sex hormones, produce spermatozoa, and ejaculate semen into the vagina of the female.
What are the main organs of the female reproductive system?
Ovaries, uterus, uterine tubes, vagina, external genitalia, and mammary glands.
What are the main functions of the female reproductive system?
To secrete sex hormones, produce ova, receive ejaculated semen from the erect penis of the male, nourish the developing embryo and fetus, deliver the baby, and nurse the infant once it’s born.
What are the main organs in the cardiovascular system?
The heart, blood, and blood vessels (arteries and veins)
What are the main functions of the cardiovascular system?
Delivers oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and other important substances to cells and organs in the body
What are the main organs of the lymphatic system?
Lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus.
What are the main functions of the lymphatic system?
Transport excess tissue fluid, maintain homeostasis around body cells, lipid absorption, and provide immunological defenses against disease-causing agents.
What are the main organs of the respiratory system?
Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, and trachea. As well as the bronchi, bronchioles, and pulmonary alveoli within the lungs.
What are the main functions of the respiratory system?
Supplying the body with air and expelling carbon dioxide (gas exchange), sound production, and assistance in abdominal compression.
What are the main organs of the digestive system?
Gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) and accessory organs which are teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
What are the main functions of the digestive system?
Process food, extract nutrients from it, and eliminate the residue.
What are the 5 stages of the digestive system?
Ingestion
Digestion
Absorption
Compaction
Defecation
What are the main organs of the urinary system?
2 kidneys, 2 ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.
What are the main functions of the urinary system?
Filters blood by separating toxins you don’t need from the nutrients you do need and excreting the waste as urine.
What is homeostasis?
The capacity of the body to maintain a stable internal environment in spite of fluctuating external conditions.
What is the importance of maintaining body functions? (Importance of maintaining homeostasis)
Not maintaining homeostasis will lead to illness or disease. Further non maintaining will lead to death.
What is negative feedback?
When there is a see saw effect in change. The stimulus and effect go in opposite directions. When the stimulus goes up, the effect goes down. When the stimulus goes down, the effect goes up.
What is positive feedback?
When there is a greater change in the same direction. The stimulus and effect either both go up or both go down.
What are receptors? (Homeostasis)
Specialized nerve endings which respond to the stimulus. * They can’t do anything so they take it to the control center.
What is the control center?
The nervous system and endocrine system
Which controls system works faster, nervous or endocrine? Why?
The nervous system works faster because it uses immediate electrical impulses while the endocrine system uses hormones.
What are effectors?
Nerve signals, hormones
What is standard anatomical position?
It’s the reference point. The body is standing or laying supine (laying down) with the head and feet facing forward, arms laying by the sides with the palms facing forward. Thumbs are away from the midline (lateral).
Directional terms: anterior, posterior
Anterior - front side
Posterior - behind or back side
Directional terms: superior, inferior
Superior - towards the head end
Inferior - towards the tail end
Directional terms: ventral, dorsal
Ventral - toward the front or belly
Dorsal - toward the back or spine
Directional terms: cranial (cephalic), caudal
Cranial - toward the head or superior end
Caudal - toward the tail or inferior end
Directional terms: medial, lateral
Medial - closer to the midline
Lateral - away from the midline
Directional terms: afferent, efferent
Afferent - coming in, brining in sensations
Efferent - going away, taking away information
Directional terms: proximal, distal
Proximal - closer to the point of attachment
Distal - further from the point of attachment
Directional terms: ipsilateral, contralateral
Ipsilateral - same side
Contralateral - opposite side
Directional terms: superficial, deep
Superficial - closer to the surface of the skin
Deep - further from the surface of the skin
Directional terms: central, peripheral
Central - at or near the center of the body
Peripheral - away from the center of the body
Directional terms: parietal, visceral
Parietal - closer to the body wall
Visceral - closer to the organ
Frontal (coronal) plane
Vertical, divides the body into anterior and posterior halves
Sagittal plane
Vertical, divides the body into right and left halves
Midsagittal plane
Equal left and right halves
Parasagittal plane
Unequal left and right halves
Transverse (cross-sectional or horizontal) plane
Horizontal, divides the body into superior and inferior halves
What does the dorsal (posterior) cavity consist of?
Cranial cavity and spinal (vertebral) cavity
What does the ventral (inferior) cavity consist of?
Thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity
What major organ (viscera) is in the cranial cavity?
The brain
What major organ (viscera) is in the vertebral (spinal) cavity?
The spinal cord
What is the thoracic cavity divided into?
The pleural cavity and the pericardial cavity
What major organ (viscera) is in the pleural cavity?
The lungs
What major organ (viscera) is in the pericardial cavity?
The heart
What is the abdominopelvic cavity?
Bony pelvis, divided into 4 quadrants by physicians and divided into 9 regions by anatomist.
What cavities are in the abdominopelvic cavity?
Abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity
What major organs (viscera) are in the abdominal cavity?
The digestive organs (stomach, liver small and large intestine), spleen, and kidneys
What major organs (viscera) are in the pelvic cavity?
Bladder, rectum, and reproductive organs
What is the diaphragm?
It is a skeletal muscle that separates the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity
What is mediastinum?
The thoracic cavity is divided by a thick median wall called the mediastinum. This is the region between the lungs. It is occupied by the heart, major blood vessels connected to it, esophagus, the trachea and bronchi, and a gland called the thymus.
What are the 4 abdominopelvic quadrants?
Right upper quadrant (RUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), and left lower quadrant (LLQ)
What are the 9 abdominopelvic cavities?
Left hypochondriac, left lumbar, left inguinal (iliac), epigastric, umbilical, hypogastric, right hypochondriac, right lumbar, right inguinal (iliac)
What is the plasma membrane?
It borders/surrounds the cell, defines boundaries.
What is the plasma membrane made of?
Proteins and lipids
Describe the plasma membrane
Flexible, thin 7-10nm
When viewed on an electron microscope, the plasma membrane appears as…
A pair of dark parallel lines
What are 2 things you ALWAYS have to remember about plasma membrane?
Semipermeable and fluid mosaic model
What is the cytoplasm?
Consists of organelles, cytoskeleton, inclusions (stored or foreign parts), and cytosol (intracellular fluid)
__ of the cell is going to be water (cytosol)
60%
What is the nucleus?
Command/control center.
What is anucleate?
A cell with no nucleus
What is an uninucleate?
A cell with 1 nucleus
What is the fluid mosaic model?
It describes the structures of the plasma membrane as a mosaic of components (phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates) that gives the membrane a fluid character.
A plasma membrane is made up of __ layers of _______ called the ________
2 layers of phospholipid called the bilayer
___ of the membrane molecules are lipids. About ___ are phospholipids.
98%, 75%
What does amphipathic mean?
Having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts
These amphipathic molecules arrange themselves…
Into a sandwich like bilayer, with their hydrophilic phosphate-containing heads facing the water in each side and their hydrophobic tails directed toward the center, avoiding the water.
Proteins are only ___ of the molecules of the plasma membrane.
2%
What are the 2 broad classes of protein membranes?
Transmembrane (integral) proteins and peripheral proteins
What are the arrangements of transmembrane (integral) proteins?
They pass completely through the plasma membrane. They are embedded within the plasma membrane. They go through both layers.
Most transmembrane (integral) proteins are…
Glycoproteins
What are the arrangements of peripheral proteins?
They do not protrude into the phospholipid layer but adhere to the inner or outer face of the membrane. They are usually tethered to the cytoskeleton.
What is the main job of peripheral proteins?
Structural support
Glycolipids are ___ of the membrane layer.
5%
Where are glycolipids found?
They are only found on the extracellular surface of a cell.
What are glycolipids?
They are nothing but sugars attached to liquid. They are attached to fatty acid tails. They look like tree branches, 8 ring-like structures linked.
Glycolipids + glycoproteins = _________
Glycocalyx
What are glycoproteins?
They are transmembrane (integral) proteins. They penetrate and pass completely through the membrane. They go through both layers. Hydrophilic regions contact cytoplasm, ECF. Hydrophobic regions pass through lipid of membrane. Some drift in membrane, others are anchored to cytoskeleton.
Cholesterol is ___ of the membrane layer.
20%
What is cholesterol?
Weakly amphipathic. Holds phospholipids still and can stiffen membrane. Look like 4 ring-like structures linked.
Where is cholesterol located?
They are wedged in between the fatty acid tails.
___ of the cholesterol needed for cells is created by the ______.
85%, liver
What are the 6 different functions for proteins found in the plasma membrane?
Receptors, enzymes, channel proteins, carriers, cell-identity markers (Cell-identification molecules CIM), and cell-adhesion molecules (CAM)
What do receptors proteins do?
Bind chemical signals. Allow chemicals to sit
What to enzymes do?
They speed up a chemical reaction. They are not destroyed in the process.
What do channel proteins do?
They allow hydrophilic particles and water to come in and out of membrane. Some are always open (leakage ion channels), some are gated channels.
Leakage ion channels are…
Always open, specific, more leakage ion channels for potassium than sodium (K>Na)
What do ligand (chemical)-gated channels do?
Respond to chemical messengers
What do voltage-gated channels do?
Respond to charge changes
What do mechanically-gated channels do?
Respond to physical stress on cell; respond to a mechanical stimulus
Channel proteins are crucial to ______ and ______ function
Nerve, muscle
What do carrier proteins do?
They bind solutes and transfer them across the membrane. They transport heavier molecules like glucose, amino acids, vitamins, hormones.
What do cell-identity markers (cell-identification molecules CIM) do?
They are glycoproteins that act as identifying tags. It distinguishes the body’s own cells from foreign cells
What do cell-adhesion molecules (CAM) do?
Mechanically link cell to extracellular material
Describe membrane fluidity
Phospholipids drift laterally from place to place, spin on their axis, and flex their tails. These movements keep the membrane fluid.
What does membrane permeability mean?
Diffusion through a membrane depends on how permeable it is to its particles.
What does selectively permeable mean?
It allows some substances to pass through the membrane but doesn’t allow other substances to pass through.
What does impermeable mean?
Does not allow substances to pass through membrane
What does permeable mean?
Allows substances to pass through membrane
What does extracellular mean?
Situated or occurring outside of a cell
What does intracellular mean?
Within the cell
What does intercellular mean?
Situated between or among cells
What is extracellular fluid? What are some examples?
It is any fluid outside of cells. Includes tissue (interstitial) fluid, blood plasma, lymph, cerebrospinal fluid, and blood.
What is intracellular fluid?
Also known as cytosol. It is the solution part of the cell. This is the fluid that is found within the cell.
What is interstitial fluid?
Tissue fluid. Fluid that fills spaces between cells.
What is a concentration (chemical) gradient?
When there is a difference in the concentration/the number/the amount of substances
What is an electrical gradient?
When there is a difference in charges (positive and negative charges).
What is an electromagnetic gradient?
When a molecule moves on the bases of concentration of the chemical and charge
What are gradients?
Gradients are change. They are part of membrane transport
What is membrane transport?
The movement/transport of materials across the plasma membrane of any cell.
Movement down the concentration gradient means…
it goes from high concentration to low concentration and energy (ATP) is not used.
Movement against the concentration gradient means…
It goes from low concentration to high concentration and energy (ATP) is used.
What is simple diffusion?
Movement of particles from a region of higher to a region of lower until an equilibrium is reached. No ATP (energy). Particles must be small size and lipid soluble.
What is facilitated diffusion?
The carrier-mediated transport of a solute through a membrane down its concentration gradient. It requires no ATP (energy) by the cell. It transports solutes such as glucose that cannot pass through the membrane unaided.
What is membrane potential?
Charge separation happening on either side of the plasma membrane. Positive on the outside, negative in the inside.
The rate of diffusion is affected by:
Temperature
Molecular weight
“Steepness” of concentration gradient
Membrane surface area
Membrane permeability
Diffusion affected by temperature
Higher the temp, faster the rate of diffusion
Diffusion affected by molecular weight (size of molecule)
Greater the molecule size, slower the rate of diffusion
Diffusion affected by “steepness” of concentration gradient
Greater the steepness (difference), faster the rate of diffusion
Diffusion affected by membrane surface area
Greater the surface area, greater the diffusion
Diffusion affected by membrane permeability
Greater the membrane permeability, faster the rate of diffusion
Solute = _______
Particle
Solvent = ________
Water
Solution = _________ + _________
Solute + solvent
