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Perception > Final: Chapter 11 > Flashcards

Final: Chapter 11 Flashcards

1
Q

For humans, what does hearing provide?

A

signals such as warning sounds, distinctive high-pitched cry of a baby who is distressed, adds richness to our loves through music and facilitates communication by speech.

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2
Q

Pressure changes in the air

A

Sound stimulus

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3
Q

Pressure changes in the air or other medium.

A

Physical definition of Sound

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4
Q

The experience we have when we hear.

A

Perceptual definition of Sound

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5
Q

Sound/ sound stimulus

A

Physical stimulus

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6
Q

Sound perception

A

Experience of sound

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7
Q

Occurs when the movements or vibrations of an object cause pressure changes in air, water, or any other elastic medium that can transmit vibrations.

A

Sound stimulus

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8
Q

What happens when the diaphragm of the speaker moves out and it pushes the surrounding air molecules together ?

A

It causes a slight increase in the density of molecules near the diaphragm.

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9
Q

The pushing of the surrounding air molecules together

A

Compression

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10
Q

What does the increased density of molecules near the diaphragm result in?

A

a local increase in the air pressure above atmospheric pressure.

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11
Q

When the speaker diaphragm moves back in, air molecules spread out to fill in the increased space.

A

Rarefaction

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12
Q

What does the decreased density of air molecules caused by rarefaction cause?

A

a slight decrease in air pressure.

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13
Q

The pattern of air pressure changes that travel through the air at 340 meters per second.

A

Sound Wave

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14
Q

TRUE OR FALSE: although air pressure changes move outward from the speaker, the air molecules at each location move back and forth but stay in about the same place.

A

TRUEEEE

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15
Q

Occurs when changes in air pressure occur in a pattern described by a mathematical function called a sine wave.

A

Pure Tone

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16
Q

The number of cycles per second that the pressure changes repeat

A

Frequency

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17
Q

The size of the pressure change

A

Amplitude

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18
Q

What is the unit of measure for frequency?

A

Hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz is 1 cycle per second

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19
Q

What is one way to specify a sound’s amplitude?

A

indicate the difference in pressure between the high and low peaks of the sound wave.

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20
Q

Unit of sound that converts the large range of sound pressures into a more manageable scale

A

decibel (dB)

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21
Q

Equation for transforming sound pressure level into decibels

A

dB = 20 * log10 (p/p0)

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22
Q

A function or wave that repeats its value at regular intervals.

A

Periodic waveform

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23
Q

The repetition rate of a tone/ lowest frequency of a periodic waveform

A

fundamental frequency

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24
Q

Tones that are made up of a number of pure tone (sine wave) components added together.

A

Complex tones

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25
Q

component of a tone

A

Harmonic

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26
Q

A pure tone with a frequency equal to the fundamental frequency; the first harmonic

A

Fundamental of a tone

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27
Q

Pure tones with frequencies that are whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency.

A

Higher harmonics

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28
Q

The position of each line on the horizontal axis indicates the frequency of one of the tones’ harmonics, and the height of the line indicates the harmonic amplitude.

A

Frequency spectra

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29
Q

What does the frequency spectra provide?

A

a way of indicating a complex tone’s fundamental frequency and harmonics that add up to the tone’s complex waveform.

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30
Q

Differences in the perceived magnitude of a sound

A

Loudness

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31
Q

Differences in the low to high quality of sounds

A

Pitch

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32
Q

The perceptual quality is most closely related to the level or amplitude of an auditory stimulus, which is expressed in decibels.

A

Loudness

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33
Q

What do thresholds and loudness depend on?

A

not only decibels but also on frequency

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34
Q
  • Indicates threshold for hearing versus frequency.
  • indicates that we can hear sounds between about 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz and that we are most sensitive at frequencies between 2000 and 4000 Hz.
A

Audibility curve

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35
Q

What is the range of frequencies that is most important for understanding speech?

A

2000 and 4000 Hz

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36
Q

the area above the audibility curve that shows tones we can hear.

A

Auditory response area

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37
Q

Tones within the upper boundary of the auditory response area; these high amplitudes are the ones we can “feel”; they can become painful and can cause damage to the auditory system.

A

Threshold of feeling

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38
Q

the decibels at which it can just barely be heard, as indicated by the auditory curve

A

baseline (threshold) of a frequency

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39
Q

TRUE OR FALSE: loudness increases as we increase the level above this baseline

A

TRUE

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40
Q

Indicate the sound levels that create the same perception of loudness at different frequencies

A

Equal Loudness

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41
Q

How is the equal loudness curve determined?

A

By presenting a standard pure tone of one frequency and level and having a listener adjust the level of pure tones with frequencies across the range of hearing to match the loudness of the standard.

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42
Q

The perceptual quality we describe as “high” or “low”, can be defined as the property of auditory sensation in terms of which sounds may be ordered on a musical scale extending from low to high.
- also a property of speech

A

Pitch

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43
Q

The physical property of fundamental frequency

A

Pitch

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44
Q

The repetition rate of the sound waveform

A

Fundamental frequency

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45
Q

Low fundamental frequencies are associated with _____ pitches

A

Low

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46
Q

High fundamental frequencies are associated with _____ pitches

A

High

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47
Q

The perceptual experience of increasing pitch that accompanies increases in a tone’s fundamental frequency.

A

Tone Height

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48
Q

Notes with the same letter

A

Tone Chroma

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49
Q

Every time we pass the same letter on the keyboard, we have gone up an interval called an __________.

A

octave

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50
Q

Notes with the same chroma have fundamental frequencies that are separated by a multiple of ______.

A

Two

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51
Q

When the pitch remains the same, even when the missing fundamental or other harmonics are removed.

A

Effect of the missing Fundamental

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52
Q

The quality that distinguishes between two tones that have the same loudness, pitch, and duration but still sound different

A

Timbre

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53
Q

What does timbre depend on?

A

A tone’s attack and the tone’s decay

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54
Q

The buildup of sound at the beginning of the tone

A

Tone’s attack

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55
Q

the decrease in sound at the end tone

A

Tone’s decay

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56
Q

The pattern of pressure changes in the waveform repeats/ Pure tones and the tones produced by musical instruments

A

Periodic sounds

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57
Q

Sounds that have waveforms that do not repeat

A

Aperiodic sounds

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58
Q

TRUE OR FALSE: Only aperiodic sounds can generate a perception of pitch

A

FALSE, periodic sounds do this

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59
Q

What are the three basic tasks that the auditory system accomplishes?

A

First, it delivers the sound stimulus to the receptors; second, it transduces this stimulus from pressure changes into electrical signals; and third, it processes these electrical signals so they can indicate qualities of the sound source, such as pitch, loudness, timbre, and location.

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60
Q

What are the divisions of the ear?

A

outer, middle, and inner

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61
Q

Small hairlike parts of the hearing receptors

A

Stereocilia

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62
Q

Sound waves first pass through the _________ ______, which consists of the __________ and the ___________ ________.

A

The outer ear, pinnae, auditory canal

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63
Q

The structures that stick out from the sides of the head; the location of sounds

A

Pinnae

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64
Q

A tubelike recess about 3 cm long in adults protects the delicate structures of the middle ear from the hazards of the outside world, protects the delicate tympanic membrane (eardrum), and helps keep this membrane and the structures in the middle ear at a relatively constant temperature.

A

Auditory canal

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65
Q

Enhances the intensities of some sounds by means of the physical principle of resonance

A

Auditory canal

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66
Q

Occurs in the auditory canal when sound waves that are reflected back from the closed end of the auditory canal interact with sound waves that are entering the canal.

A

Resonance

67
Q

The frequency that is reinforced the most being determined by the length of the canal.

A

Resonant Frequency

68
Q

What happens when airborne sound waves reach the tympanic membrane at the end of the auditory canal?

A

They set it into vibrations, and this vibration is transmitted to structures in the middle ear, on the other side of the tympanic membrane.

69
Q

The ________ ________ is a small cavity that separates the outer and inner; contains the ossicles.

A

middle ear

70
Q

The smallest bones in the body; the malleus, incus, and stapes

A

ossicles

71
Q

Known as the hammer; set into vibration by the tympanic membrane, to which it is attached, and it transmits its vibrations to the incus (anvil)

A

Malleus

72
Q

Known as the anvil, it transmits its vibrations to the stapes.

A

Incus

73
Q

Known as the stirrup; transmits its vibrations to the inner ear by pushing on the membrane covering the oval window.

A

stapes

74
Q

Both the outer ear and middle ear are filled with ________.

A

air

75
Q

The inner ear contains what?

A

a watery liquid that is much denser than the air

76
Q

What problem does the liquid in the inner ear cause?

A

pressure changes in the air are transmitted poorly to the much denser liquid.

77
Q

How do the ossicles help solve the problem of vibrations not transmitting directly from the ait in the middle ear to the liquid in the inner ear?

A
  1. by concentrating the vibration of the large tympanic membrane onto the much smaller stapes, which increases the pressure by a factor of about 20.
  2. by being hinged to create a lever action.
78
Q

TRUE OR FALSE: Fish have no outer or middle ear

A

TRUE

79
Q

in the middle ear; the smallest skeletal muscles in the body

A

Middle-ear muscles

80
Q

What do the middle-ear muscles do?

A

At very high sound levels, they contract to dampen the ossicles’ vibration.

81
Q

What does dampening the ossicles’ vibration do?

A

Reduces the transmission of low-frequency sounds and helps to prevent intense low-frequency components from interfering with our perception of high frequencies.

82
Q

What is the main structure of the inner ear?

A

The liquid-filled cochlea

83
Q

upper half of the uncoiled cochlea

A

scala vestibuli

84
Q

lower half of the uncoiled cochlea

A

scala tympani

85
Q

The structure that separates the scala vestibuli and scala tympani; contains the organ of corti, exteds the entire lenghth of the cochlea

A

Cochlear partition

86
Q

Where is the base of the cochlea?

A

near the stapes

87
Q

Where is the apex of the cochlea?

A

at the far end

88
Q

Contains the hair cells (receptors for hearing)

A

Organ of Corti

89
Q

What are the two membranes?

A

the basilar membrane and the tectorial membrane

90
Q

at the tips of the hair cells; bends in response to pressure changes

A

Stereocilia

91
Q

How many rows of inner hair cells do humans have?

A

1 row

92
Q

How many rows of outer hair cells do humans have?

A

3 rows

93
Q

Where is the stereocilia of the tallest row of outer hair cells embedded?

A

tectorial membrane

94
Q

Where is the stereocilia of the left-over outer hair cells and all the inner hair cells embedded?

A

NOT on the tectorial membrane

95
Q

What does the back-and-forth motion of the oval window transmit?

A

vibrations to the liquid inside of the cochlea

96
Q

What are the 2 results of the up-and-down motion of the basilar membrane?

A
  1. it sets the organ of corti into an up-and-down vibration
  2. causes the tectorial membrane to move back and forth
97
Q

The main receptors responsible for generating signals that are sent to the cortex in auditory nerve fibers.

A

inner hair cells

98
Q

Steps of transduction for hearing

A
  1. stereocilia of the hair cells bend in one direction (right)
  2. ion channels open in stereocilia
  3. Positively charged potassium ions flow into the cell, and an electrical signal results.
99
Q

What does the bending of the stereocilia cause?

A

causes structures called tip links to stretch, and this opens tiny ion channels in the membranes of the stereocilia; causing alternating bursts of electrical signals

100
Q

What happens when the stereocilia bends in the other direction (left)?

A
  1. tip links slacken
  2. ion channels close
  3. ion flow stops
  4. no energy signals
101
Q

What is the result of the electrical signals in the hair cells?

A

release of neurotransmitters at the synapse separating the inner hair cells from the auditory nerve fibers, causing auditory nerve fibers to fire.

102
Q

What happens when the pressure increases?

A

The stereocilia bend to the right, the hair cell is activated, and attached auditory nerve fibers will tend to fire.

103
Q

What happens when the pressure decreases?

A

The stereocilia bend to the left, and no firing occurs. The auditory nerve fibers fire in synchrony with the rising and falling pressure of the pure tone.

104
Q

The property of firing at the same place in the sound stimulus

A

Phase locking

105
Q

What does a sound’s repetition rate produce?

A

A pattern of nerve firing in which the timing of nerve spikes matches the timing of the repeating sound stimulus

106
Q

What did Bekesy determine about the basilar membrane? How did he accomplish this?

A

the basilar membrane vibration of the basilar membrane. He accomplished this by boring a hole in cochleas taken from animals and human cadavers.

107
Q

The motion that occurs when a person holds the end of a rope and snaps it, sending a wave traveling down the robe

A

Traveling wave

108
Q

As frequency increases, what happens to the place on the membrane that vibrates the most?

A

it moves from the apex at the end of the cochlea toward the base at the oval window

109
Q

High frequencies cause more vibration near the _____________________.

A

near the base end of the cochlea

110
Q

Low frequencies cause more vibration near the _____________________.

A

apex of the cochlea

111
Q

High frequencies activate what part of the cochlea?

A

base

112
Q

Low frequencies activate what part of the cochlea?

A

apex

113
Q

map of frequencies

A

tonotopic map

114
Q

A neuron’s frequency tuning curve is determined by?

A

presenting pure tones of different frequencies and measuring the sound level necessary to cause the neuron to increase its firing above the baseline or “spontaneous rate in the absence of sounds

115
Q

What is the cochlea’s filtering action reflected by?

A
  1. neurons respond best to one frequency
  2. each frequency is associated with nerve fibers located at a specific place along the basilar membrane
116
Q

Explains why neural turning curves were narrower than what would be expected based on Bekesy’s measurements of basilar membrane vibration.

A

Cochlear amplifier

117
Q

Influences the way the basilar membrane vibrates, and they accomplish this by changing length

A

outer hair cell

118
Q

What does ion flow in inner hair cells cause?

A

electrical response in auditory nerve fiber

119
Q

What does ion flow in outer hair cells cause?

A

mechanical changes inside the cell that causes the cell to expand and contract

120
Q

What causes the outer hair cells to become elongated?

A

When the stereocilia bend in one direction and contract when they bend in the other.

121
Q

What does the mechanical response of elongated and contraction that pushes and pulls on the basilar membrane cause?

A

increase in the motion of the basilar membrane and sharpens its response to specific frequencies.

122
Q

What sharpens the tuning of each place along the cochlea?

A

cochlear amplifier

123
Q

causes a peak of activity at a specific place on the basilar membrane. The neurons connected to that place respond strongly to that frequency.

A

A pure tone

124
Q

Where does the information from the neurons go to in audition?

A

Info is carried up to the auditory nerve to the brain

125
Q

What is the brain doing with the information that is carried up the auditory nerve?

A

The brain identifies which neurons are responding the most and uses this info to determine the pitch

126
Q

Based on the relation between a sound’s frequency and the place along the basilar membrane that is activated

A

Place Theory

127
Q

The idea that pitch can be determined by harmonics only work for ?

A

low harmonics - harmonics that are close to the fundamental

128
Q

Lower harmonics activate __________ filters, while high harmonics can activate _________ filters.

A

separate, the same

129
Q

Each lower harmonic can be distinguished by a peak/ bump in the excitation curve

A

Resolved harmonics

130
Q

The excitations caused by the higher harmonics create a smooth function that does not indicate the individual harmonics.

A

Unresolved harmonics

131
Q

A stimulus that contains many random frequencies so it doesn’t create a vibration pattern on the basilar membrane that corresponds to a specific frequency.

A

Noise

132
Q

a sound stimulus that wasn’t associated with vibration of a particular place on the basilar membrane, but which created a perception of pitch.

A

Amplitude-modulated noise

133
Q

Means that the level (or intensity) of the noise was changed so the loudness of the noise fluctuated rapidly up and down.

A

Amplitude modulation

134
Q

Who found that the noise stimulus resulted in a perception of pitch, which they could change by varying the rate of the up-and-down changes in level?

A

Burns and Viemeister

135
Q

What conclusion did Burns and Viemeister come to?

A

Pitch can be perceived even in the absence of place information, and has been demonstrated in a large number of experiments using different types of stimuli.

136
Q

what does our experience of hearing depend on?

A

processing that occurs after signals leave the cochlea

137
Q

What happens to signals generated in the hair cells of the cochlea?

A

They are transmitted out of the cochlea in nerve fibers of the auditory nerve.

138
Q

Describe the auditory pathway to the brain

A

It begins in the cochlear nucleus and continues to the superior olivary nucleus in the brain stem, the inferior colliculus in the mid-brain, and the medial geniculate nucleus. From the MGN, fibers continue to the primary auditory cortex in the temporal lobe of the cortex.

139
Q

What does SONIC MG stand for?

A

SON = superior olivary nucleus
IC = inferior colliculus
MG = medial geniculate nucleus

140
Q

What is processing in the superior olivary nucleus important for?

A

Locating sounds because it is here that signals from the left and right ears first meet

141
Q

occurs up to about 5000 Hz in auditory nerve fibers, occurs only up to 100-200 Hz in the auditory cortex

A

Phase locking

142
Q

What did Daniel Bendor and Xiaoqin Wang determine?

A

How neurons in regions partially overlapping the primary auditory cortex of a marmoset (monkey) responded to complex tones that differed in their harmonic structure but would be perceived by humans as having the same pitch.

143
Q

What did Daniel Bendor and Xiaoqin Wang find?

A

Neurons that responded similarly to complex tones with the same fundamental frequency but with different harmonic structures.

144
Q

Cortical neurons that responded only to stimuli associated with the 182-Hz tone, which is associated with a specific pitch

A

Pitch neurons

145
Q

How was brain imaging used?

A

fMRI to measure the response to stimuli associated with different pitches

146
Q

noise stimulus that covers the same range as the pitch stimulus

A

Frequency-matched noise

147
Q

What areas are most responsive to pitch?

A

located in the anterior auditory cortex - the area close to the front of the brain

148
Q

What did Norman-Haignere determine?

A

in regions most responsive to pitch responded to resolved harmonics but didn’t respond as well to unresolved harmonics

149
Q

What did Norman-Haignere conclude?

A

Since resolved harmonics are associated with pitch perception, this results strengthens the conclusion that these cortical areas are involved in pitch perception

150
Q

What are the causes of hearing loss?

A
  1. noise in the environment
  2. damage to the outer hair cells
  3. damage to auditory nerve fibers
151
Q

What causes a loss of sensitivity (inability to hear quiet sounds) and a loss of the sharp frequency tuning seen in healthy ears?

A

damage to the outer hair cells

152
Q

What else could cause of loss of sensitivity besides damage to the outer hair cells?

A

inner hair cell damage

153
Q

type of hearing loss that is caused by hair cell damage resulting from the cumulative effects over time of noise exposure, the ingestion of drugs that damage the hair cells, and age-related degeneration

A

Presbycusis

154
Q

TRUE OR FALSE: presbycusis affects females more severely than males

A

FALSE, it affects males more severely than females

155
Q

type of hearing loss that occurs when loud noises cause degeneration of the hair cells. This degeneration has been observed in examinations of the cochleas of people who have worked in noisy environments. Damage to the organ of corti is present.

A

Noise-induced hearing loss

156
Q

are activities such as recreational gun use, riding motorcycles, playing musical instruments, and working with power tools.

A

Leisure noise

157
Q

Hearing loss where people with “normal” hearing who have trouble hearing in noisy environments

A

Hidden hearing

158
Q

What does the standard hearing test involve?

A

Measuring thresholds for hearing tones across the frequency spectrum.

159
Q

A plot of hearing loss versus frequency

A

audiogram

160
Q

hearing loss due to nerve fiber damage has been described as?

A

hidden hearing loss

161
Q

How can observers tell whether the infant has heard a tone?

A

They decide by looking for responses such as eye movements, changes in facial expression, a wide-eyes look, a turn of the head, or changes in activity level.

162
Q

How did they determine whether the infant heard a recording of the mother’s voice or a recording of a stranger’s voice?

A

By the length of the pause in the infant’s sucking.

163
Q

What did DeCasper and Fifer (researchers of infants) find?

A

the babies regulated the pauses in their sucking so that they heard the mother’s voice more than the stranger’s voice.

164
Q

What did DeCasper and Fifer (researchers of infants) suggest about why the newborns preferred their mother’s voice?

A

The infants had heard the mother talking during development in the womb

Perception (17 decks)

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