Final Flashcards
1
Q
Structure and function biological theme
A
Structure helps to determine function
2
Q
Example of structure and function
A
Plasma membrane
- it is semi permeable = allowing only certain things to enter/ exit the cell
- this is due to having a hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads
3
Q
Evolution and adaptation biological theme
A
Those that adapt to their surroundings are most likely to survive and reporoduce
4
Q
How does antibiotic resistance relate to biological theme evolution and adaptation
A
It can be passed via horizontal gene transfer
- those who get the antibiotic resistance are more likely to survive and reproduce
5
Q
Biological theme: information flow
A
Central dogma of biology
DNA ➡️ RNA ➡️ proteins
6
Q
Spontaneous generation
A
The idea that microorganisms spontaneously come about
- wrong idea
7
Q
Biogenesis
A
Living cells only arise from pre existing cells
8
Q
Who is Louis Pasteur
A
Discovered biogenesis
Experiment he boiled broth in a straight flask and a curved neck flask to demonstrate microbes come from pre-existing microbes
- straight flask had growth and curved did not until he turned the curved flask on its side to allow those trapped particles in the curve to enter
9
Q
Koch postulates
A
- Diseased individuals must be diseased, while Healthy remain healthy
- Isolate disease from diseased individual and grow it in pure culture (lab)
- Inoculate a healthy individual with the disease grown in pure culture to see if it causes disease (symptoms)
- Reisolate disease from inoculated host and see if it is the original disease
10
Q
What are some exceptions to Koch postulates
A
- Ethical concerns
- Some microbe are hard to culture
- Some microbes cause multiple diseases
- A disease is caused by multiple microbes
- Asymptomatic individuals
11
Q
Endosymbiosis theory
A
The first eukaryote came from the fusion of bacteria and archaea
Bacteria - mitochondria
Cytobacteria - chloroplast
12
Q
What evidence supports the endosymbiosis theory
A
- Organelles have their own genome that looks like bacteria genome
- Organelles divide via a process similar to binary fusion
- Organelles have ribosomes that look like bacteria ribosomes
13
Q
Eukaryotes characteristics
A
- eukaryotes
- have membrane bound organelles (linear dna)
- dna found in nucleus
- vertical gene transfer
14
Q
Prokaryotes characteristics
A
- bacteria and Archea
- no membrane bound organelles
- Dna found in nucleoid (circular dna)
- can do horizontal gene transfer
15
Q
Fluid mosaic modal
A
Cell wall is made of phospholipids that jiggle around
16
Q
Gram positive cell wall
A
- thick peptidoglycan layer w/ inner membrane
- turns purple during gram staining
17
Q
Gram negative cell wall
A
Small peptidoglycan layer
Inner/ outer membrane
- turns pink during germs staining
18
Q
Gram staining procedures
A
- Use crystal violet
- Iodine
- Alcohol wash (dissolves outer membrane in G-)
- Safranin
19
Q
Active transport
A
Moves against concentration - requires energy (atp)
20
Q
Passive transport
A
Travels with concentration- doesn’t require energy (Atp)
21
Q
Group translocation (type of active transport)
A
When a substrate is chemically altered once it paces through the plasma membrane
Ex. Glucose turns into g6-P
22
Q
Group translocation occurs only in ________
A
Prokaryotes
(Bacteria/ archea)
23
Q
Diffusion
A
Solutes moving from high to low concentration to reach equilibrium
(This is cellular transportation )
24
Q
What are the 2 types of diffusion
A
Simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion
25
Simple diffusion
The molecule can just freely cross the plasma membrane
- usually hydrophobic
26
Facilitated diffusion
Requires a protein channel to cross plasma membrane
27
Osmosis
The movement of water from low to high concentration
28
Capsules
Protect bacteria from immune system and prevents phagocytosis
- organized glycocalyx ( sugar coat)
29
What a re the physical growth requirements for bacteria
Temperature
Ph
Osmotic pressure
30
Why are the classifications of bacteria (temperature)
Psychrophiles
Psychrotrophs
Mesophiles
Thermophiles
31
Bacteria classifications for ph
Acidophiles
Neutrophils
Alkaliphile
32
On the optimal growth chart what is the optimal temp mean
The ideal/ best temperature for a bacteria to grow
33
Obligate aerobes tube
- will have bubbles at the top
Sod & Cat present
34
Obligate anaerobe tube
Requires no oxygen - bubbles at the bottom of tube
- no Sod or Cat present
35
Facultative anaerobe tube
Likes o2 but can tolerate no o2 - bubble mostly at the top and little throughout
- Sod & Cat present
36
Binary fusion
A cell divides its dna into two cells
1 cell ➡️ 2 cells
37
Binary fusion steps
DNA replication (starts in chromosome)
Cell elongation & cell begins to separate
- septum form in the middle facilitating separation
- dna moves to each end of cell
3. Cell punches off taking the ftsz protein in each
38
Bacteria growth curve
1. Lag phase - cell gets ready for cell division
2. Log phase - # cells dividing > # cells dying
3. Stationary phase - # cells dividing = # cells dying
4. Death phase - # cells dying > # cells dividing
39
Endospores
Like bunkers - bacteria hide away
- occurs via sporulation
40
Why do bacteria create endospores
When environment conditions are not good or ideal for dividing
41
Free energy
The ability to do work
42
Catabolic reaction
Exergonic ( releases energy)
- breaks bonds down
Delta G-
43
Anabolic reaction
Endergonic (requires energy -ATP)
- bonds are made
Delta G+
44
Anaerobic respiration
Different final electron exceptor then oxygen
- makes less atp
45
Fermentation
Only goes through Glycolysis to make atp quickly
Goal = replenish nad+
46
What part of cellular respiration makes the most atp and how
Electron transport chain via atp synthase
47
Electron transport chain is generated by the
Proton gradient
- h+ going in
48
Cystic acid cycle
2nd step of cellular respiration
- it makes NADH & FADH
Some atp
49
Glycolysis
1st step of cellular respiration
- produces atp via phosphorylation
- NADH made
Pyruvate comes out = Acetyl coA in kreb cycle
50
Base pairs
A- t
C- G
51
DNA structure
Backbone = sugar phosphate
Base - purines & pyrimidines
- double stranded that are anti parallel
52
End of dna structure
5- end = phosphate
3- end = sugar
53
Semi conservative
And old stand of dna (template) will always be paired up with a new one
54
Helicase
Unwinds double helix dna at replication forks
55
Single stranded binding proteins (sbp)
Stop dna from rebinding with each other
56
Toposomerase (gyrase)
Releases tension ahead of Helicase
57
Leading strand vs lagging strand
Leading = continuous w/ one rna primer
Lagging = discontinuous - needs multiple primers (Okazaki fragments)
58
Primase
Creates rna primer
59
DNA ligase
Joins Okazaki fragments together
60
DNA pol 1
Removes rna primers and replaces it with dna
61
DNA pol 3
- found on leading/ lagging strand
Sequences new dna
62
Horizontal gene transfer vs vertical gene transfer
Horizontal - occurs w/in same generation
Vertical - b/w two different generation
63
What are the tree types of horizontal gene transfer
Transformation
Conjugation
Transduction
64
Transformation horizontal gene transfer
A donor cell (usually dead) relaxes dna into environment allowing recipient cell to take it up
65
Conjugation
F+ (donor) cell transfers dna via sex pilus to f-
66
Mechanism of conjugation
1. Sex pilus formed b/w f+ & f-
2. Mating bridge formed as f+ pulls f- close
3. Part of f+ plasmid goes into f-
4. Plasmids replicate turning both in to f+
67
Transduction via horizontal gene transfer
- occurs in virus
During maturation step of lytic cycle host dna is take up instead of virus genome
68
Plasmid dna transfer consequence
It is retained in the cell
- replicates on its own w/ own origin of replication
69
Two ways linear dna is transferred consequence
It can be take up - corporated
Not incorporated- degraded
70
Broad vs narrow spectrum
Broad = works against multiple (many) types of bacteria
Narrow = only works on certain bacteria
71
Magic bullet
Create an antibiotic that will target just the pathogen without it harming the host
72
What are the 5 mechanisms of of Antimicrobial drug actions
1. Inhibit cell wall synthesis
2. Inhibit protein synthesis (ribosome )
3. Inhibit metabolism
4. Destroy the plasma membrane
5. Inhibit dna replication/ rna
73
Inhibit cell wall synthesis example
Penicillin
- it inactivated transpeptidase (what connects cross bridges) causing cell wall to weaken ➡️cell lysis
74
Inhibit protein synthesis example
Prevent translocation from occurring
- streptomycin, throbomysin
75
Inhibit dna replication example
Fluruqunolones - Inhibit dna gyrase causing dna breakage
76
Injury the plasma membrane example
Polymyxin b - inserts it to plasma membrane (causing holes)
77
Inhibiting metabolism example
Sulfanilamide (sulfa drugs)
- interfering with a step of the folic acid synthesis
78
Hospital vs community acquired infection
Hospital = got infection in a hospital
Community = got an infection in a non healthcare facility
79
Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance
1. Block entry
2. Inactivate by enzyme
3. Efflux (kick it) out
4. Alter molecule
80
How do antibiotic resistance bacteria arise?
Over use of antibiotics
Mis use of antibiotics
81
Are antibiotic resistance bacteria mutations spontaneous?
Yes! A mutation can develop with out ever seeing that antibiotic
82
There is a selective pressure on antibiotic resistance bacteria to survive and reproduce
TRUE or FALSE
Trues
⬆️ antibiotic use = more a bacteria will be exposed to antibiotic= ⬆️ likelihood antibiotic resistant bacteria will service/ reproduce
83
Superinfection
Overgrowth of a certain bacteria
- cause a disrupt in a community
84
Pathogenicity
Ability of a microorganism to cause a disease by overcoming host defenses
85
Virulence
Degree of pathogenicity
86
Virulence factors
Specific proteins that help a microbe establish disease
87
Etiology
Cause of disease
88
Pathogenesis
How a disease develops
89
Epidemiology
Where and when a disease occurred and how it is transmitted
90
Signs vs symptoms
Signs - physical changes a physical can see/ measure
Symptoms- hoe a person feels/ experiences
91
What are the mechanisms of transmission of a disease
Contact - direct, indirect, droplet
Vehicle - essential (food,water,air)
Vector - biological (through a bite)
Mechanical (accidentally carry pathogen on feet - house flies)
92
Fomite
Non,Irving object that spreads disease
- stethoscope
93
Transcription
1. Initiation
- dna unwinds a bit exposing promoter to allow rna polymerase to bind to it
2. Elongation
-. RNA polymerase created mRNA (5- to 3- end)
3. Termination
RNA polymerase pops off dna and mRNA released
94
Translation
(Switching of languages)
Nucleotides ➡️ amino acids
95
Mechanism of translation
Ribosome reads mRNA for ensemble proteins
A site = new tRNA come in w/ amino acid
P site - tRNA first binds here (peptide sits)
E site = exit (old tRNA leaves from here)
96
Genetic code characteristics
Highly conserved
Read in 3 nucleotides at a time
Redundant not ambiguous
97
Redundant vs ambiguous
Redundant = one codon can code for many amino acids
Ambiguous= each codon only codes for one amino acid
98
Repressible operon
Turns off when tryptophan is present
- when TPR is bound to repressor it is able to bind to operator
99
Inducible operon
Turns when lactose is present
- when co repressor (allolactose) bound to repressor = can not bind to operator
100
What happens when a repressor binds to the operator site on operon?
Operator = on/ off switch
- repressor bound to operator blocks RNA polymerase
101
Mutation
Change in dna sequence
102
Types of mutations
Silent, Missense, nonsense, frameshift
103
Silent mutation
Mutation still codes for the same amino acid
104
Missense mutation
Mutation that changes codon to code for a different amino acid
Non conservative = new amino acid is chemically different
Conservative = new amino acid is not chemically different
105
Nonsense mutation
Mutation that changes amino acid to stop codon
- causes non functional protein
106
Frameshift mutation
Insertion of nucleotides
-affects
107
Virus structure
- nucleic acid
DNA/ rna
Protein coat
108
Capsid
Protein coat that surrounds nucleic acid
109
Bacteriophage replication include
Lytic cycle
Lysogenic cycle
110
Lytic cycle
Attachment - tail faibers help attach to cell
Penetration- drives core through cell allowing sheath inject genetic info
Biosynthesis- dna replication & rna via transcription / translation
Maturation- dna/ proteins cell assemble
Release - virus release resulting in cell lysis
111
Lysogenic cycle
Host cell survives
- viral dna integrated into genome
112
Animal virus replication
1. Attachment
2. Entry
3. Uncoating
4. Biosynthesis
5. Maturation
6. Release
113
What are the 2 ways of entry for animal viruses
Receptor mediated endocytosis - virus bound to protein on plasma membrane and membrane folds bringing it in
Fusion - envelope fuses plasma membrane and releases the capsid into cells cytoplasm
114
What are the 2 ways animal virus cells can be released
Rupture - plasma membrane brakes open releasing virus
Budding - plasma membrane surrounds the virus and pinches off forming an envelope
115
Phases of disease
Incubation period
Prodromal period
Period of illness
Period of decline
116
Incubation period
Time between infection and signs/symptoms
117
Prodromal period
Mild signs and symptoms
- first few days so hard to distinguish it from cold and other disease
118
Period of illness
Immune system actively fighting pathogen
- most severe symptoms
119
Period of decline
Immune system is wining
Signs/symptoms decline
120
Period of convalescence
When body Is recovering
- regaining strength
121
Portals of entry
Mucus membranes
Skin
122
ID50 vs LD50
Id - infectious dose that infects 50% population
Ld- lethal dose ( kills 50% of population)
123
Adherence
Microbe attaching to plasma membrane
124
What’re ways bacteria can hide from immune system
Capsule
Extracellular enzymes - coagulase & igA proteasis
Antigenic variation
Type 2 secretion system
125
Coagulase
Converts fibrinogen into fibrin
126
IgA proteasis
Destroys igA antibodies
127
Antigenic variation
Alter surface molecules
- like a disguise ( pathogen changes it’s antigens so it can not be recognized)
128
Type 2 secretion
Injects “syringes” releasing effector into host to make it easier to infect
129
Exotoxin vs endotoxin
Exotoxin- made by pathogen then released
Endotoxin- part of pathogen
130
2 types of endotoxin
A/b toxin
Membrane disturbing
