Extra Info from 6b Notes, probably review for unit 7 Flashcards
The National State
-Mass politics became reality largely in Western Europe (reforms encouraged expansion of political democracy thru voting rights 4 men & creation of mass political parties) BUT developments strongly resisted in parts of Europe where old political forces remained strong
-Western European States: parliamentary gov. GB & France saw expansion of right 2 vote, liberal reforms, less successful in Spain & Italy
-Central Euro States (Germany & Austria-Hungary) –> had trappings of Parliamentary gov + legislative bodies & elections by universal male suffrage BUT authoritarian forces (esp. powerful monarchies & conservative social groups) remained strong
-In Eastern Europe, esp Russia, old system of autocracy hardly changed
Western Europe: The Growth of Political Democracy
GB: *By 1884, during ministry of William Gladstone, passage of Reform Act of 1884 gave vote to all men who paid regular rents/taxes (almost every man)
*Lords tired to reassert authority over House of Commons and so by rejecting the People’s budget, but forced by the kind of the time to allow it (payment of salaries to members beginning in 1911 further democratized institution by at least opening doors to ppl other than wealthy)
*Social welfare programs are passed by the Labor part (comparable to social democratize party in Germany, or socialist part in France)
*Gradual reform through parliamentary institutions has become way of political life, but this failed to solve problem in Ireland (long subject to GB + Act of Union 1801 –> united GB & Ireland’s parliaments) –> Ireland developed sense of national self-consciousness
*Gladstone attempts to alleviate Irish discontent by enacting limited land reform, as Irish tenants continued to be evicted in 1870s, Irish began to make new demands –> In 1879 group called Irish Land League (advocated 4 independence) called on 4 Parliament to at least institute representatives in Parliament, called for home rule (sep. Parliament, not complete independence) , Irish began to respond to British w/more violence & when British also did w/more force, Irish Catholics began to demand independence
–> Gladstone introduced bill in 1866 that would have created Irish Parliament w/o granting independence , but this down-voted by Parliament (esp. Conservative members bc they thought concessions would only = more violence), Gladstone tried again in 1893 but failed again
Western Europe: The Growth of Political Democracy
-The Third Republic in France:
*France is defeated in 1870 by Prussia, Paris occupied with Germans
*French republicans initially set up provisional gov, Bismarck forced French to choose gov by universal male suffrage –> French ppl rejected republicans, favored & elected Monarchists & conservatives to National Assembly SO in response Radical republicans formed independent republican gov. in Paris AKA the Commune (tried to create socialist state in France) –> National Assembly refused to give up power & crush forces (many working class men & women defended commune, women expanded such activities but then harsh punishments of women who participated discouraged any future efforts of working-women to improve their conditions)
-Country agreed that conservative republic is best option given all divisions; inability to agree on who should be monarch led to in 1875 an improvised constitution that established a republic form of gov.
–> Similar social policies to Germany, Trade Unions legalized again to gain support from working class, free compulsory education offered by state, secular education made Catholics nervous, but tensions eventually eased, large overseas empire
–> Despite gov’s gradual encouragement of more & more middle + peasant class support, Third Republic still precarious bc monarchists, Catholic clergy, & professional army officers still opposed it
–> Crisis in 1880s strengthens Third Republic: General Georges Boulanger popular military officer who attracted public attention of those who were discontent w/republic, but in1889, when his strength had grown to where many expected coup d’etat, he fled France –> served to rally support for resilient republic
Western Europe: The Growth of Political Democracy
-Spain: *W/new constitution in 1875 under King Alfonso X||| Parliamentary gov was established & dominated by Conservatives & Liberals (all from same small social group of great landowners & allied wealthy industrialists)
*Suffrage limited to propertied class –> Liberals & conservatives alternated in power but followed basically the same conservative policies
*Defeat in Spanish American War of 1989 (loss of Cuba & Philippines) increased discontent w/status quo
*Young intellectuals called Generation of 1898 called for political & social reforms, both parties attempted to enlarge their electorate & win masses’ support for their policies, but little reform & growth of industrialization –> more workers attracted to radical solutions of socialism & anarchism
*Violence erupted in Barcelona in July 1909, military forced brutally suppressed rebels, repression made it clear that reform would not come easy b/c of Catholic Church, large landowners, & army tied to conservative order
Western Europe: The Growth of Political Democracy
-Italy:
*By 1870, geographically united, but internal weakness due to sectional differences, (poverty stricken south vs. industrializing north –> weakened sense of community)
*Catholic church who had lost control of Papal states b/c of unification refused to accept existence of new state
*Turmoil between workers & industrialists undermined social fabric
*Gov. unable to effectively deal w/problems bc of extensive corruption among gov. officials & lack of stability created by ever-changing gov. coalitions
Central and Eastern Europe: Persistence of the Old Order
-Germany: *Despite Unification,important divisions remained & couldn’t simply be papered by force of nationalism –> shown in German constitution that provided for a federal system w/Bicameral legislature: Bundesrat/upper house represented 25 states, lower house = Reichstag who were elected on basis of universal suffrage, Ministers responsible to emperor not parliament, emperor commanded armed forces & controlled foreign policy & internal administration
*Germany unified, Bismarck prime minister, hollow democracy, Bismarck & William || (emperor) had final call in everything BUT even thru creation of parliament elected by universal male suffrage & opportunities of the growth of a real political democracy, failed to develop in Germany b4 WW| bc of army & Bismarck
*Army: viewed itself as defender of monarchy & aristocracy& sought to escape any control by the Reichstag by operating under general staff responsible only to emperor (Prussian military tradition strong, & military officers took steps & ensured loyalty of subordinates to emperor, easy as long as junker landowners were officers), Growth of Army made it necessary to turn to middle class for officers, extreme care taken ti choose only sons of “honorable bourgeois families”
*Bismarck did not answer to Reichstag but still sought to engage them (for purposes of coalition building & has support to do what he wants when he wants)
–> embarks on Kulterkampf movement, “Cultural Struggle” series of laws against Catholics, but failed so he aligned w/Catholic Center Party, High tariffs on imports gained support of conservatives & farmers but these protectionist policies & trade wars are cause of WW|
*In 1878, Bismarck abandoned liberals & persecuted socialists, thought socialist anti-nationalistic,
-capitalistic & -monarchical ideas as dangerous, got Parliament to pass anit-socialist law that outlawed Social Democratic Party & limited socialists meetings & publications (but socialist candidates still permitted to run for Reichstag)
–> In addition to these repressive measures, Bismark tried to win over the working class away from socialism –> created social welfare programs (retirement pensions, sickness & accident insurance) HOWEVER it didn’t stop workers from becoming socialists but did give them reason to “root for” gov.
*Scialist Democratic Party continued to grow, Bismark planned more repressive measures but before he could carry them out, William || fired Bismark in 1890 to pursue his own policies
Western Europe: The Growth of Political Democracy
-Austria Hungary: Dual Monarchy created in 1867
-Austrians: parliamentary system w/principle of ministerial responsibility, Emperor Francis ignored ministerial responsibility (personally appointed & dismissed ministers when parliament was not in session)
*Problems of minorities continued to trouble empire, Ethnic Germans (only 1/3 of pop) governed Austria but felt increasingly threatened by Czechs, Poles, & other Slavic groups –> Shown in Count Edward von Taaffe service as prime minister: attempted to “muddle through” by relying on coalition of German conservatives, Czechs, & Poles on maintaining majority in parliament, but concessions to minorities for Slavic languages to be used in education & administration, antagonized pillars of empire aka German speaking Austrian bureaucracy & aristocracy, oppositions to his policies brought his downfall in 1893 –> dissatisfied German groups demanded concessions, ruling Austrian Germans resisted change
*Francis Joseph, emperor = unifying factor despite anti-Hungarian, bc he made an effort to take position above national differences
*Loyalty to Catholic Church helped keep national groups like Czechs, Slovaks, Poles loyal to Catholic Habsburg dynasty
*Although dominated by German speaking officials, large imperial bureaucracy served as unifying force
-Hungary: *Working parliamentary system controlled by great Magyar landowners who dominated both Hungarian peasantry & other ethnic groups
*Hungarians attempted to solve nationalities problem by systematic Magyarization –> Magyar language imposed on all schools & only language that could be used by gov. & military officials
Western Europe: The Growth of Political Democracy - Russia!
-Made no concession to liberal & democratic reforms, eliminating altogether any possibility of mass politics
-Assassination of Alexander || convinced son/successor reform had been a mistake –> power of secret police expanded, advocates of constitutional monarchy & social reform & revolutionary groups persecuted
-Entire districts of Russia placed under martial law if gov. suspected inhabitants of treason
-Alexander pursued radical Russification program of numerous nationalities –> even though Russians were only 40% of pop, Tsar banned all languages except Russian in schools (angered national groups & created new sources of opposition to tsarist policies
