Ch. 22 & 24 - Unit 7: NATIONALISM & IMPERIALISM Flashcards
Realpolitik
DEF: “politics of reality”, politics based on practical concerns rather than theory or ethics
SIG: Bismarck often portrayed as ultimate realist, foremost 19th cen. practitioner of Realpolitik
Materialism
DEF: belief that everything mental, spiritual, or ideal is an outgrowth of physical fores & truth is found in concrete material existence of humans & not, as Romantics imagined, through feeling or intuition
SIG: Evident in most important scientific event of 19th cen, development of theory of organic evolution according to natural selection
Realism
DEF: 19th cen school of painting that emphasized everyday life or ordinary ppl depicted w/photographic accuracy
SIG: First employed in 1850 to describe new style of painting & soon spread to literature
Suffragists
DEF: advocates of extending right to vote to women
Anti-Semitism
DEF: hostility toward/discrimination against Jews
SIG: In Austrian Politics for ex. Christian Socialist combined agitation for workers w/virulent anti-semitism –> most powerful in Vienna, led by Karl Lueger
–> home of insidious German Nationalism that blamed Jews for corruption of German Culture (Hitler claimed to find his worldview in Vienna 1967-1913)
Background
-Revolutions of 1848 closed Conservative Era & introduced Age of Nationalism
*Repressive peace and diplomatic stability (Metternich) replaced by war & rapid change
-Desire for nation-states continued to increase (desire for all these different groups to have a sovereign independent country, what Germany wanted)
*Nationalism had been strong since 1789 (French wanting own republic)
*1848, failed movements for nationalism (EX Hungary)
*Despite failures of 1848, Metternich Age is falling apart!
Napoleon III in France
-How in France did Napoleon III seek to reconcile popular & conservative forces in an authoritarian nation-state?
-Napoleon I (1800-1815) stirred nationalism within his authoritarian rule
*Nephew, Louis Napoleon (|||) continued the mix of nationalism & authoritarian rule
*Even after his election (first time around, won easily) as president of French Republic
in 1848, many of his contemporaries dismissed him as a nonentity whose success was due only to his name
*patient man: For three years, he persevered in winning support of French people & when National Assembly rejected his wish to revise
constitution & be allowed for reelection, Louis used troops to seize control of gov. on December 1 1851
* After restoring universal male suffrage, Louis Napoleon
asked French people to restructure gov. by electing him president for ten years, overwhelming majority said yes
–> Year later he returned to ppl to ask for restoration of empire, majority said yes –> & on December 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon assumed title of Napoleon III, Second Empire had begun
The Second Republic and Louis Napoleon (what we call him until he becomes emperor –> |||)
-Popularized by romantic artists and writers
*Elected by triple the votes of the other candidates, universal male suffrage
-Authoritarian nationalistic leader
*Believed government should represent the people & should try to help economically
*Sacred duty to provide jobs & stimulate the economy
*Took lasting power w/coup d’etat December 2, 1851 (Leads it because he isn’t allowed to run again for president, expanded male suffrage w/coup)
–> Popular with the people
Napoleon III’s Second Empire
-Louis Napoleon aka Napoleon III 1852-1870
*New investment banks, railroads, public works & rebuilding of Paris
*As chief of state Napoleon III controlled armed forces, police & civil service
–> Only he could introduce legislation & declare war, Legislative Corps gave an appearance of representative gov. since its members were elected by universal male suffrage for six-year terms, but could neither initiate legislation nor affect the budget
-Tried to reduce social & political tensions w/economic progress
*Supported credit unions & better housing
-Although he was “emperor”, Napoleon III fostered democracy w/new constitutions →parliamentary & universal male suffrage
-But still held almost all power of state (legislative & military)
-Foreign Policy, The Mexican
Adventure: * less accomplished at dealing with foreign policy
*Seeking to dominate Mexican markets for French goods, emperor sent French troops to Mexico in 1861 to join British & Spanish forces in protecting their interests in midst of upheaval caused by a struggle between liberal & conservative Mexican factions
*Although British & Spanish withdrew their troops after order had been restored, French forces remained, & in 1864, Napoleon III installed Archduke Maximilian of Austria, his handpicked
choice, as new emperor of Mexico
*When French troops were needed in Europe, Maximilian became an emperor w/o an army –> surrendered to liberal Mexican forces in May 1867 & was executed in June -> His execution = blow to prestige of French emperor
Meanwhile, in Eastern Europe….
Russia: Crimean War: who would control crumbling Ottoman Empire?
-Independence movements successful for several ethnicities/countries in Ottoman (Greece, Serbia, etc) Russia also heavily involved
-War erupted in 1853 (Ottoman v Russia) wanted access to Christian locations in Palestine (Muslim ruled, France wants Christian control); France & Britain declare war on Russia→ Balance of Power!
*Such a move would make Russia major power in eastern Europe & would enable them to challenge British naval control of eastern Mediterranean
*Napoleon III felt Russians had insulted France, first @ Congress of Vienna & now by their insistence on replacing French as protectors of Christians living in Ottoman Empire + French also feared
collapse of Ottoman Empire & growth of Russian influence there
- Although the Russians assumed that they could count on support from Austrians (since Russian troops had saved Austrian government in 1849), the Austrian prime minister –>, ‘‘We will astonish the world by our ingratitude,’’ & Austria remained neutral b/c they perceived it was not in their best interest to intervene, Russia had to fight alone
-Russia was defeated in 1855 & forced to give up claims in Ottoman Empire & accept neutrality of Black Sea
-Broke up longstanding European power relationships & effectively destroyed
Concert of Europe
*Austria & Russia, 2 chief powers maintaining status quo in first half
of 19th cen were now enemies b/c of Austria’s unwillingness to support Russia in war
*Russia, defeated, humiliated, & weakened by obvious failure of its serf-armies, withdrew from European affairs for next two decades to set its house in order
*Great Britain, disillusioned by its role in war also
pulled back from Continental affairs
*Austria paying price for its neutrality was now w/o friends among great powers
-First newspaper war→printed stories quickly (telegraph & photography)
- Leaders who were willing to pursue ‘‘politics of reality’’ found themselves in a situation rife w/opportunity –> this new international situation made it possible for unification of Italy & Germany
Italian Unification
-Establish strong centralized state
*Piedmont-Sardinia, King Emmanuel II & Count Camillo Cavour (Prime Minister of Piedmont region)
–> Cavour organized & manipulated to lead unification (in Piedmont region the Nationalist of the Italian peninsula looked to lead unification of its various regions)
–> Cavour was a shrewd politician whose infrastructure programs in Piedmont generated kind of wealth that allowed him to assemble massive Army, that army helped him significantly HOWEVER Austria & France were obstacles (controlled Italian regions) so any plan of Italian Unification would have to figure that out
-Removal of foreign influence
*Spain in Naples & Sicily; France in Genoa, Alsace, Lorraine; Austria in Lombardy & Venetia
–> Cavour allied w/French to drive Austria from Lombardy: *Cavor promised Napoleon ||| that if he helped drive Austrians out of Northern Italy then France could keep what they held on Italian Peninsula along w/other couple territories, however Napoleon didn’t do all that he said, enraged Cavor BUT in the middle of this, Northern Italian regions have been taken over by nationalists & they agreed to join Peidmont –> NORTHERN ITALY UNIFIED
*Guisseppe Garibaldi-liberal nationalist-organized military (led his men the red shirts to unify Southern Region)
–> Removed Spanish Bourbons from Sicily & Naples
–>After uniting southern Italy, he gave over sovereignty to ruler of Northern Italy Victor Emmanuel ||, almsot all of Italy unified w/exception of Rome which was still occupied by France, but thanks to Franco-Prussian War in 1870, Napoleon || withdrew his troops from Central Italy to go fight elsewhere, & then Victor Emmanuel claimed central region & Italian Unification was complete
-Official unification (1871)
*Italian provinces voted for unification - 1861
–> Rome & Venetia did not join at this time
*After Austro-Prussian war (German unification) Italy rewarded for not helping Austria & gain control of Venice
*Rome under French control until Franco-Prussian War (German unification); Cavour used opportunity to take Rome
Italian Unification more info
-Unification was a well-recognized idea in Italy
*had long been supported by romantic nationalists like Giusseppe Mazzini
–> began group called Young Italy, mostly focusing on future generations of Italy to encourage them to unify
-Major steps to unification include:
*1. The establishment of a strong, centralized state.
–> In Italy, this was Piedmont-Sardinia under leadership of King Victor Emmanuel II & his Prime Minister, Count Camillo Cavour –> Cavour will orchestrate strategic alliances & manipulate events in Italy to organize unification movement
*2. The removal of foreign influence: In Italy, foreign influence mostly consisted of Spain in Naples & Sicily, France had influence in Genoa, Alsace, & Lorraine, & Austria in Lombardy & Venetia
*3. Official unification didn’t happen until 1871:
In meantime, Cavour & King Victor Emmanuel II allowed Italian provinces to vote for unification
–> W/their only other options being controlled by foreign powers, many voted to support a unified Italy.
–> final two provinces were Rome & Venetia
German Unification
-Otto von Bismarck:
*Chancellor of Prussia; sole goal to create unified Germany
*Zollverein (economic unity of Germany states) inspired
nationalism
*Bismarck used nationalism to increase Prussia’s power &
worked to eliminate foreign influence
-Danish War, 1864:
*Prussia v Denmark
*In the North there were 2 German Provinces controlled by Denmark, ppl there were German & spoke German, Bismark aimed to tke back those territories & make them properly German
*Bismark Convinces Austria to help in cause, almost immediately successful
*Prussia started succession conflict over leadership in German speaking Schleswig & Holstein, Prussia wins & gets Schleswig, Austria receives Holstein (begins North German Confederation in 1866)
-Austro-Prussian War, 1866:
*Prussia v Austria
*Before this war, Bismark negotiated non-interference treaties w/major Euro powers like RUssia & GB b/c he didn’t want them joining cause & messing w/plans
*Bismarck organized conflict over administration of Schleswig & Holstein
*Bismarck thought that if region struggle broke out then German states would have to take sides& that is exactly what happened! (Most Northern states supported Prussia)
*Prussian won & weakened Austrian empire
-Franco-Prussian War, 1870:
*France v Prussia
*Bismarck convinced cousin of Wilhelm I, Leopold, to claim Spanish throne
*France worried about Germans to east & south
*Bismarck coordinated the interception of a letter that heavily insulted the French & goaded them into war which Prussia won
–> Bismarck thought best way to unify Southern German states to the north was to fight a common enemy AKA France BUT there was no reason to go to war so Bismarck falsified a document in which a Prussian diplomat insulted Napoleon ||| & then “accidentally” leaked it to France & so Napoleon declared war on Prussia
*France had to give up Alsace & Lorraine regions (this will come back later!)
Diplomatic Tensions - Balance of Power Begins to Fall Apart
-France forced to recognized Germany as legitimate country & pay reparations (this is gonna come back too!)
*forced to sign a resolution recognizing Germany as a legitimate country at Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles- embarrassing
* also were forced to pay reparations to Germans as well as cede territory
*Kaiser Wilhelm | crowned king of Germany & unification was complete
*French will carry this tension through colonial conflicts w/Germany & into WWI
-Bismarck created alliances w/other states to ensure Germany stood strong against France if they seek to retaliate + increasingly isolate France
*Three Emperor’s League: Germany, Austria, Hungary & Russia, 3 states would control eastern Europe esp. Balkans which were becoming increasingly unstable, when this league collapsed in 1887 new alliance formed –>
*Reinsurance Treaty: Russia & Germany promised each other they would remain neutral if either got involved in a war unless it was Germany vs France or Russia vs Austria, then after relations w/Russia deteriorated Bismarck established –>
*Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary & Italy (This one goes to WW|!!)
–> By the time Bismarck was dismissed as chancellor of 1890, Europe was collection of mutually antagonistic alliances, made negotiation & flexibility between 2 sides almost impossible
–> Tensions in Balkans: Growing unrest driven by growing nationalist sentiment, Bismarck saw this & organized Congress of Berlin in 1878 in order to solve problem, (@ Congress were major powers of Europe & their decisions didn’t rlly consider nationalist desires for self-rule in Balkans & only considered balance of power between great powers
–> Congress only increased tensions)
*In First & Second Balkan Wars alliances lit up & had great powers of Europe fighting on different sides of Balkan wars & those battles cemented divisions which would eventually lead to WW|
-Austria weakened & tons of internal tensions = dual monarchy in 1867 (Austria-Hungary)
-Crimean War (1853-1856)
*Russia v coalition of France, Britain, Austria
*When Nicholas I died and Alexander II took over it helped ease tensions & lead to a positive relationship eventually
Meanwhile, in Eastern Europe….
Austria-Hungary:
-Habsburgs shut down revolt in 1848-49 & restored autocratic rule
-1851 revolutionary constitutions abolished & centralized autocracy restored fully
-Austria defeated by Italian war (independence) 1859, weakened control
Ausgleich (compromise) of 1867
*After struggle in Austro-Prussian war Austrians deal w/ nationalistic Hungarians
*Create Dual Monarchy
–> Each part had constitution, bicameral legislature, ability to make own domestic decisions, & two separate capitals (Vienna-Austria, Buda (soon combined with Pest) for Hungary)
–>United under one king (Francis Joseph–emperor of Austria, King of Hungary) & shared military, foreign policy, & money
*No other nationalities given independence (hello WWI)
Imperial Russia (After Crimean War)
-Tsar Alexander || came to power in midst of Crimean War & turned his energies to a serious overhaul of Russian System
-March 3 1861 Alexander issued emancipation edict –> peasants could now own property, marry as they chose, & bring suits in law courts
however benefits were limited
*Gov provided land for peasants by purchasing from landowners but landowners chose to keep best lands
*Peasants weren’t completely free b/c state compensated landowners for land given to peasants & peasants had to pay state back (to ensure this peasants were subjected to authority of Mir)
-Alexander || attempted other reforms; in 1864 he instituted system of zemstvos/local assemblies that provided moderate degree of self-government (they were elected from noble landowners, townsppl & peasants but property-based system of voting gave advantage to nobles) –> Zemstvos given
limited power to provide public services: education,
famine relief, road & bridge maintenance, levy taxes to pay for these services, but efforts often disrupted by bureaucrats, who feared any hint of self-government, hope of liberal nobles & other
social reformers that zemstvos would be expanded into national parliament remained unfulfilled BUT legal
reforms of 1864 (created regular system of local & provincial courts & judicial code that accepted
principle of equality before law) proved successful!
-Even autocratic tsar was unable to control forces
he unleashed by his reform program
*Reformers wanted
more & rapid change; conservatives opposed what they perceived as tsar’s attempts to undermine basic institutions of Russian society. *By 1870, Russia was witnessing an increasing # of reform movements
*One of the most popular stemmed from radical writings of Alexander Herzen –> epitomized his
belief that Russian peasant must be chief instrument
for social reform, Russian students and intellectuals who followed Herzen’s ideas formed movement called populism whose aim was to create new society thru revolutionary acts of peasants BUT peasants’ lack of interest in revolutionary ideas, led some populists to resort to violent means to overthrow tsarist autocracy (like Vera Zasulich who advocated
use of violence to counteract violent repression of tsarist regime)
*Encouraged by Zasulich’s successful use of violence against tsarist regime, another group of radicals, known as the People’s Will, succeeded in assassinating Alexander II in 1881
*Alexander III (1881–1894), turned against
reform & returned to traditional methods of repression
