Ch. 21 Unit 6b: Isms & Revolutions (1815-1914)

Question 1

Principle of legitimacy

Answer 1

-DEF: Idea that after Napoleonic wars, peace could best be reestablished in Europe by restoring legitimate monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions
-SIG: *Guided Metternich @ Congress of Vienna
*already done in France & Spain w/restoration of Bourbons & Italian States
*Ignored by more practical considerations of power (Poland!)

Question 2

Balance of Power

Answer 2

DEF: distribution of power among several states so that no single nation can dominate or interfere w/interests of another
SIG: *France stayed great power BUT major defensive barriers against possible French expansion

Question 3

Ideology

Answer 3

DEF: political philosophy like conservatism or liberalism
SIG: conservative forces appeared dominant after 1815 both internationally & domestically

Question 4

Conservatism

Answer 4

DEF: Ideology based on tradition & social stability that favored maintenance of established institutions, organized religion, & obedience 2 authority & resisted (esp. abrupt) change

Question 5

Principle of Intervention

Answer 5

DEF: idea, after Congress of Vienna, that great powers of Europe had right to send armies into countries experiencing revolution 2 restore legitimate monarchs to throne
SIG: Britain refused to agree to principle (Only agreed to interfere w/France) BUT Austria, Prussia, & Russia did
–> Concert of Europe broke down

Question 6

Liberalism

Answer 6

DEF: ideology based on belief that ppl should be as free from restraint as possible
*Economic: gov. doesn’t interfere w/economy
*Political: restraints on exercise of power so ppl can enjoy basic civil rights in constitutional state w/a representative assembly
SIG: *Owed much to Enlightenment & American Revolutions
*Even more significant in IR as developing industrial middle class adopted doctorine –> divergences of opinions, but same basis

Question 7

Socialism

Answer 7

DEF: (early) an ideology that calls for collective or government ownership of means of production & distribution of goods
SIG: *given rise b/c of poor conditions in slums, mines, & factories of IR
*eventually associated w/Marxist analysis of human society but early socialism = introduction of equality in social conditions & human cooperation was better than competition of early Industrial Capitalism
*later Marxists thought those ideas 2 be impractical dreams, & labeled those theorists Utopian Socialists who were against private property & competition of IC

Question 8

Individualism

Answer 8

DEF: emphasis on/& interest of unique traits of each person
SIG: *important characteristic of Romanticism
*Romantics’ desire 2 follow inner drives led to them rebelling against middle class conventions –> long hair, beards, & outrageous clothes reinforced individualism

Question 9

Peace Settlement

Answer 9

-Prince Klemens Von Metternich: leader of congress of Vienna, guided by principle of legitimacy (restore legitimate monarchs) –> done w/restoration of Bourbons in Spain, France, Italian States 2 BUT Poland shows ignoring that
–> Prussia & Austria receive land, yes independent Polish kingdom but w/Romanov dynasty of Russia as hereditary monarchs + foreign policy under Russian control
-Territorial arrangements = new balance of power, ex) as Russia gains, so do Prussia & Austria

Question 10

Conservatism Ideologies

Answer 10

-Metternich & his kind = representatives of conservatism

-Edmund Burke:
*Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)
–>Attacked principle of rights of man & natural law as dangerous to social order
–>Emphasized role of tradition as basic underpinning for rights of those in positions of authority
*Proposed non-reactionary type of conservatism and believed in possibility of slow political change over time

-Joseph de Maistre:
*More reactionary/extreme type of conservatism
–>Church should be center of society–all political authority stemmed from God
–>Monarchs should be extremely stern with those who advocated for political reform

-Characteristics:
*Monarchies
*Traditional (hierarchies, social status, power)
*Limited civil rights
*Gradual change (if there must be change–Burke)
*Mercantilism
*Organized religion
*No nationalistic tendency
*Supported by monarchs/aristocracy

Question 11

Concert of Europe

Answer 11

-Reaffirmation of Quadruple alliance against restoration of Bonapartist power + periodic conferences (4 between 1818-1822)
-1st: 1818 @ Aix-la-Chapelle –> add France to alliance
-2nd: 1820 @ Tropau = deal w/revolutions in Spain & Italy (Spain one against restored bourbon Ferdinand V||, Italy one against Bourbon Ferdinand |) SO @ this meeting Metternich proposed principle of intervention, Britain says no BUT
-3rd: Austria, Prussia, Russia ignore & crush revolt in Italy
-4th: Verona 1822, same 3 let France crush revolt in Spain

Concert of Europe broken down!

Question 12

Revolt of Latin America

Answer 12

-Inspired by…
*Enlightenment
*Am & French Revs
*Liberalism
*Napoleon (opportunity) –> shift Europe’s focus to themselves (less on colonies) & provides information 4 military tactics, & nationalism

-European rulers wanted to stop these, GB refuses because if Spanish had continued control then they would dictate trading, however revolutions succesful

-Simon Bolivar
*Revolutionary leader of Venezuela
*Educated in Europe
*“Liberator”
*Encouraged & helped others

• Despite political Independence, Limited economic independence, dominated by GB (exploited & taken advantage for many many years up to this, which allows these European powers to still control these economic policies, ie GB & US)
  *ALSO James Monroe (around these same times) says no more European colonies in Western hemisphere

Question 13

Greek Revolt

Answer 13

-Principle of Intervention: But used to support revolution?

-Greeks revolted against Ottoman Turks in 1821
*Greek nationalism
*Against Muslim rule
*Supported by Europeans
–> GB & France send fleet
–> Russia declared war on Ottomans

-Benefits Great European powers Bc Ottomon empire seen as threat to Balance of power, so these Revolts from Greece against them continues to push away Ottoman Empire, Russia helps bc they want more land & more warm-water ports (Ottos near Mediterranean)

-1830: Greece declared independent

Question 14

Conservative Domination

Answer 14

-GB: landowning class dominated both houses of parliament, monarchy in their hands; Tories dominated Whigs (no desire for change); economic difficulties = Corn Law, & benefited them; Tories avoided meeting demand 4 electoral reforms (Until 1830)

-France: Bourbon restored –> Louis XVII| = accepted Napoleon’s civil code (equality + property rights) & bicameral legislature, this was opposed by ultra-royalists (wanted old regime of dominant landed aristocrats & catholic church) & when Charles X succeeded Louis in 1824 he did this = outrage –> forced 2 compromise in 1827 & accept ministerial responsibility BUT he violated it in 1829 = 1830 dissolve legislature + new elections = brink of another rev

-Italy: Austrian domination, states had reactionary govs (wanted liberal/nationalist sentiment), secret societies (Carbonari) conspired & planned 4 rev.

-Spain: Ferdinand V|| (restored) agreed to liberal constitution, then didn’t = revolts, then agreed again 2 restore but Metternich’s intervention policy saves him

-Germanic confederation looked to Prussia: Some reforms made, but Prussia remained largely absolutist state w/little interest in German unity; Liberal & National movements limited in German States (Ex. in 1819 Austria enacted Carlsbad decree = suppressed liberal & nationalist movements in German states –> outlaws nationalist organizations, forcibly dissolved radical student organizations & removed college professors from their posts)

Question 15

Decembrist Revolt in Russia

Answer 15

-1825 Tsar Nicholas the 1st rose to power (inherited throne from brother Alexander 1st & Alexander had grown increasingly conservative later in rules)
-W/change in throne, group of Russian officers aka The Decembrists who were influenced by liberal ideas, attempted a coup BUT Nicholas’ forces proved superior & revolt quickly crushed
-In response to this rebellion Nicholas grew even more desirous of crushing descent & significantly increased use of secret police 2 do so

Question 16

Liberalism

Answer 16

-Political theory (based in Enlightenment): individual natural rights (however some liberals argued fundamental rights like right to vote should be limited to landowners bc they were one w/real stake on society –> middle class movement!) Chartism fought against that (equal for all), Enlightened self interest (person acting in interest of society ultimately acting in self interest) popular sovereignty, limited gov! representation in constitutional government & parliamentary bodies
*Limit power of state & emphasize individual rights–freedom of religion, press, equality under the law
*John Stuart Mill: advocated for liberalism

-Jeremy Bentham: developed philosophy called utilitarianism which argued actions should be judged on whether they increased the happiness of those affected by action

-John Stuart Mill: sort of disciple of Bentham (built on his work), softened edges of utilitarianism & emphasized acting not only for happiness of individuals but also for society as a whole (& woman supporter!)

-Economic theory (classical school)
*Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776)
–> Nation’s true wealth was in goods produced by citizens (not gold-mercantilism) what people could produce = wealth!
~ Specialists could produce better & faster & trade would benefit all (i.e. country produces what it can & trades for what it cannot)
~ Govt should follow laissez-faire policy: let individual businesses set their own prices & production levels

-Characteristics: *Civil rights / freedoms
*Enlightenment
*Middle-class
*Laissez-faire
*Equality
*Representative government

Question 17

Nationalism

Answer 17

-Emerged as important ideology during the French Revolution
*National conscription, national, public education, national law, etc

-During French expansion, nationalism became important in other areas
*Germany & Italy esp (not unified until mid/late 1800s!)
~ Desire to get French soldiers out created unifying purpose that helped establish national identity
*Often reflected thru literature & (eventually) public education

-In early 19th-cen nationalism often tied to liberalism
*Wanted political equality and human freedom to serve as bedrock for new state

-Characteristics: *Commonalities
*Threat to tradition
*Civil rights / liberties
*Self-determination
*Mass society, as middle class grows, so do both Nationalism AND Liberalism

Question 18

Socialism

Answer 18

-During French Revolution, radical Jacobins took idea of political equality further→ economic equality
*Promoted the common ownership of all property

-Utopian Socialists: unrealistic responses to real problem of inequality
*Poor environments corrupted human nature
*Capitalism over-emphasized production, under-emphasized distribution, and had serious flaws (unemployment, low wages, etc)
*Henri de Saint-Simon: taught that society ought to be given to workers & taken from “the parasites” aka aristocracy in church who produced nothing of value for world –> workers would organize just societies, no longer any poor
*2 of Saint-Simon’s disciples, mainly Charles Fourier & Robert Owens did attempt to put these ideas into practice by creating intentional communities (prototype in Scotland, workers enjoyed 8 hr workdays, shared property free education 4 children), however idea never really caught on

-Flora Tristan
*Female supporters attracted to ideas of restructured society
*“Utopian synthesis of socialism & feminism”

-Characteristics: *Against private property
*Equality (including gender)
*Human cooperation & government intervention
*supported by Women & working class

Question 19

Communism

Answer 19

-Marxism: 2nd type of socialism, scientific socialism
–> Karl Marx also was distressed @ injustice of society w/such large gap between rich & poor, however he believed Utopian socialist solutions failed bc they didn’t understand Capitalism
*Scientific socialism = equal rights of men & women (some women became significant Marxist leaders) –> In Germany Clara Zetkin led charge against privileges of bourgeoisie & worked on reform 4 women, In Poland Rosa Luxembourg worked 2 secure rights 4 working class & even led revolution (but failed) in 1980

-Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels
*Authors of Communist Manifesto
*Believed all of history was class-based –> class struggle: industrialization exacerbated division between 2 classes (bourgeoisie & proletariat) so new societal agreement needed
*Needed a class war to end issues
–>Proletariat overthrow bourgeoisie and capitalism
–>Establish a classless society where factors of production and profits were shared

-Characteristics: *Against private property
*Equality (including gender)
*Human cooperation
*Eliminate classes

Question 20

France: The July Revolution, July 26 1830

Answer 20

-Charles X = extremely conservative ruler, wanted to bring France back to pre-french revolution structures
*In end of July 1830, he stripped much of middle class of voting rights & made efforts to censor press (new elections gave French liberals opportunity so he did this)

-In response, middle class liberals & working class ppl flooded capital streets & staged insurrection, rioting & fighting for 3 days in streets, when it was clear Charles was in danger, he fled abdicating throne

-Louis Philippe replaces him, did restore some of what Charles took away but in reality just as conservative as predecessor
*(reforms really better for upper-middle class, Party Of Resistance led by Francios Guizot thought this to be perfect, Party of Movement by Adolphe Thiers did not, but after 1840 Party of Resistance dominated chamber of deputies & Guizot cooperated w/Louis in suppressing ministerial responsibility & pursuing policies in interests of wealthier manufactures & tradesppl)

-THIS along with Latin, Greek, & Russian revolts set mood of continent years before revolts of 1848

Question 21

More French Revolutions-1830 (July Rev. Recap)

Answer 21

-Principle of legitimacy returned Louis XVIII to throne in France: –> Forced to accept some enlightened ideas (free press, Napoleonic code, etc)

-French liberals place influence on governmental elections

-Charles X calls for elections in 1830
*More victories for French liberals
*Charles passes July Ordinances that are restrictive
–>Censorship of press
–>Dissolved legislative assembly
–>Limited who could vote

-Not popular→ July Revolution
*Force Charles X to flee to Britain

-Louis-Philippe becomes king
*Known as bourgeois king because support came from upper middle class
*Created constitutional changes that favored upper middle class
*Disappointment for lesser bourgeois & working class

Question 22

More French Revolutions-1848

Answer 22

-Severe depression in 1846, France (difficult for lower classes esp)
*⅓ of workers unemployed by 1847
*Louis-Philippe’s govt refuses to make changes

-Adolphe Thiers & supporters advocate for reform & changes
*Protest not allowed, used political banquets to call for reforms

-Grand banquet planned for Feb 22, 1848 in Paris→ was forbidden, but people showed up anyways & led to revolt (many killed)

-Louis-Philippe attempted to make reforms, but it was too little too late
*Forced to flee to Britain & abdicated throne

-Provisional Government established (Temporary government to create a new government)
*Restored French Republic
*Moderates & radical republicans (radical republicans wanted a republic where representatives were elected, no monarchy, no sole heir/king)
*Wanted to draft a new constitution & have universal manhood suffrage
*Created workshop program to get people back to work (socialists pushed for government sponsored workhouses which would give the unemployed work, & many established) Liberals did not want this
–>Very costly & created division (In next election, many middle class men elected to National Assembly & they shut down most of the workhouses); closed in June 1848
–>Working classes revolted, uprising in streets but were crushed

-New Constitution (2nd Republic) created unicameral legislature, universal male suffrage, & presidential office
*Strong executive
*Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (nephew of that Napoleon) easily won first election as president, would soon become Emperor Napoleon

Question 23

Haha making fun of king

he is a pear!

Answer 23

-Les Poires:
*Relaxed censorhip at beginning of reign gave too much freedom
*Louis Philippe’s attempts to gain more control backfired,
lithograph (planographic printmaking process in which a design is drawn onto a flat stone & affixed by means of a chemical reaction
*New printing press that enabled artists to make prints very quickly
*Political cartoons become increasingly popular

Question 24

Revolutionary Outbursts in Belgium, Poland, & Italy

Answer 24

-Nationalism crucial force in 3 other revolutionary outbursts in 1830

-Belgium: *Congress of Vienna added “Austrian Netherlands” AKA Belgium to Dutch Republic
*Merger of Catholic Belgium into Protestant Dutch never sat well w/Belgians –> in 1830 Belgians rose up against Dutch & succeeded in convincing major Euro powers to accept their independence
*Leopold of Saxe-Coburg (minor German Prince) to be new king & Belgian national congress established new constitution 4 new state

-Italy & Poland: *Much less successful
*Metternich set Austrian troops to crush revolts in 3 Italian states
*When Poland had nationalist uprising in 1830 to end Russian control of country, they failed to gain hoped-for support of France & GB –> by September 1831 Russians crushed revolt & established oppressive military dictatorship over Poland

Question 25

Reform in Great Britain

Answer 25

-In 1830, parliamentary elections brought Whigs to power in Britain, successful July Revolution catalyzes change in GB
*IR led to expanding group of Industrial Leaders who objected corrupt British electoral system that excluded them from political power (even though whigs = members of landed classes, they realized concessions to reform were better than revolution, demands of wealthy industrial middle class could no longer be ignored)
–> Whigs introduced election reform bill in 1830, enacted 1832 after intense struggle

-Reform Act of 1832: *Gave explicit recognition to changes wrought in British lifestyle by IR, disenfranchised 56 rotten boroughs & enfranchised 42 new towns & cities & reapportioned others, gave new industrial urban communities some voice in gov. (However property qualification for voting was retained but still meant 1/30 ppl were represented in Parliament)
*Benefited upper-middle class more, they had been added to landed interests in ruling GB (lower middle clas, artisans, industrial workers still had no vote
*Didn’t sig. alter House of Commons

-New Reform Legislation in 1830s & 40s: *Aristocratic landowning class usually (not always) reason behind legislation that stopped worst abuses of industrial system (instituted gov. regulations of working conditions in factories, mines), Industrialists & manufacturers now in Parliament opposed (not always) such legislation & preferred those in favor of economic liberalism
–> Poor Law of 1884 based on theory that aid encouraged laziness & increased # of paupers so those unable to support themselves were crowded into workhouses where living & working conditions were intentionally miserable –> ppl encouraged 2 find better employment
*Repeal of Corn Laws = primarily work of manufactures Richard Cobden & John Bright who formed Anti-Corn Law League in 1838 to help workers by lowering bread prices & abolishment also aided industrial middle class (who as economic liberals favored principles of free trade)
–> repeal came in 1846 when Sir Robert Peel (leader of tories) persuaded some of his associates to support free trade principles & abandon Corn laws

-GB ended 1848 year w/o major crisis, middle class largely satisfied by Reform Act of 1832 & Repeal Act of 1846

Question 26

Prussia! More info :)

Answer 26

-Revolutionaries in Prussia & other German states began to demand more liberal reforms + constitutional reforms & voting rights & Unification for German states
*Heat of revolution turned up to hottest in Prussia, strongest of German States

-King of Prussia, Frederick William |V suppressed revolution w/force but agreed to make some of the reforms liberals demanded
–> so delegates from German states got together in Frankfurt Assembly & drafted new constitution that would unify German States HOWEVER conservative monarchy was able to divide delegates along class & party lines so unable to come to any significant decisions, so Frederick William refused to accept Frankfurt Constitution & crushed remaining protests

Question 27

Austria! More info :)

Answer 27

-Austrian Empire home to many diff ethnic empires & all were taken by wave of nationalism & longed for right of self-rule
-These various groups revolted for diff reasons but w/Russias help, Austria was able to defeat them

Question 28

Other Revolutions - 1848

Answer 28

-Several other countries inspired by France & ideas of nationalism, liberalism launched revolts/revolutions during the 1800s, esp 1848

-Germanic States: *Liberals (usually highly educated) met together to create German constitution (heavily nationalist)
*Austria withdraw from delegation (want to keep emperor, “I’m good!”)
*Offered Prussian King crown of Emperor or Germans (but agree to constitutional limitations on power), but he refused, doesn’t agree nor wants to be limited (but regrets it)
*People had little ability to enforce Constitution & revolution failed

-Austrian Empire:
*Has consistently struggled because of divserity, struggled w/unity bc of all the different groups, so nationalism is huge motivator (desire for self-determination)
*Hungarians wanted some independence from Habsburg crown (own legislature, etc)
*Revolts in major cities gave opportunity to draft Constitution
*Austrian (Habsburg) leaders give in to some Hungarian autonomy–only tied by loyalty to Habsburg crown
*other groups too –> Czech begin agitating for similar independence, but Austrians refused & fight back (principle of legitimacy)
*Russians send 140,000 troops to suppress revolutions & autocracy remains in Austria

-Italian States:
*Very fragmented, city states, small kingdoms, have been conquered by other foreign powers (Austria, Spanish, French)
*Mazzini (leader of Italy’s risorgimento, dedicated Italian nationalist) founded organization Young Italy in 1831, goal = united italy & urged Italians to dedicate their lives to the nation, many Italian women took to his call (Cristina Belgioioso supported, pursued by Austrian authorities, fled to Paris & started newspaper abt Italian Cause)
*Some uprisings in 1830s (to unify), but they failed; new enthusiasm in 1848
*Revolts against Pope, Austrian leaders, etc to establish unified & liberated Italy ultimately failed

Question 29

Failures of 1848

Answer 29

-Revolts lead to revolutionary movements & moments of liberal constitutionalism, but this was all ultimately crushed by the end of 1848, why?

-Division within Revolutionary groups:
*Initial unity made revolution possible, but division within revolutionary groups led to fractures that couldn’t be mended
*Radicals v liberals
–> Suffrage (concerns about class status & property)
*Nationalism often driving factor, also fragmented

-Concert of Europe : Maintain status quo

Question 30

The Maturing of the US

Answer 30

-U.S. Constitution ratified in 1789 committed US to 2 major forces of half of 19th century, liberalism & nationalism
*Initially divisions over power of federal gov challenged constitutional commitment to national unity
*Conflict between Federalists (Led by Alexander Hamilton, favored financial program that would estab. strong central gov) & Republicans (Guided by Thomas Jefferson & James Madison, feared centralization & consequences for pop. liberties)
*European rivalries intensified divisions b/c Federalists were Pro-British & Republicans pro-french
*Successful conclusion of War of 1812 against GB brought end to Federalists (who opposed war) & surge of national feeling generated by war healed nations divisions

-Strong Force of National Unity = John Marshall –> made Supreme Court into important national institution by asserting right of Court to overrule act of congress (if court found it to be in violation of constitution)

-Election of Andrew Jackson as president in 1828 = new Era in American politics –> dropped traditional property qualifications, suffrage extended to almost all adult white males
*+ Americans developed detention schools for juvenile delinquents & new penal institutions, both motivated by liberal belief that right kind of environment = rehabilitation of those in need

Question 31

The Emergence of an Ordered
Society

Answer 31

-Revolutionary upheavals of
late 18th & early 19th centuries made ruling
elites nervous abt social disorder & potential dangers
to their lives & property
-influx of large numbers of people from countryside into rapidly growing cities had led to horrible living conditions, poverty, unemployment, & great social dissatisfaction
-Significant rise in property crimes –> provoked severe reaction among middle-class urban residents SO

New Polices forces! :)

Question 32

New Police Forces

Answer 32

-1st major contribution of 19th cen. to the development of a disciplined or ordered society in Europe was a regular system of police
-A number of European states
established civilian police forces (groups of well-trained law, enforcement officers who were to preserve property & lives, maintain domestic order, investigate crime, & arrest
offenders)

-FRANCE: New approach to policing made First appearance in France in 1828 when Louis-Maurice Debelleyme (prefect of Paris) proclaimed that its goal was to protect –> serjents appeared on Paris street
*blue uniforms to make them
easily recognizable by all citizens, lightly armed w/white cane during day &
saber at night –> not many officers at first, eventually increased

-BRITISH BOBBIES: fearful of
powers exercised by military/secret police in authoritarian Continental states, British had long resisted creation of professional police force –> depended on a system of unpaid constables
recruited by local authorities (Often local
constables were incapable of keeping order, preventing crimes, or apprehending criminals –> included dangerous jobs & incidents)
*failure of the local constables led to three thousand uniformed police officers appearing on streets of London September 1829 - May 1830, became known as Bobbies after Sir Robert Peel,
who introduced legislation that created force
*Primary goal to prevent crime, municipal forces found that police were
also useful for imposing order on working-class urban
inhabitants
*As demands for better
pay & treatment led to improved working conditions,
British police began to develop sense of professionalism

-SPREAD OF POLICE SYSTEMS: organized throughout the Western world during 19th cen, after revs of 1848 in Germany, state-financed police force called the Schutzmannschaf modeled after British popo appeared
*Began as civilian body, but by 1851 force had become
organized more along military lines & was used for political
purposes –> military nature was reinforced by force’s
weaponry

Question 33

OTHER APPROACHES TO THE CRIME PROBLEM

Answer 33

-Contemporary reformers approached the problem in
other ways

-Some believed that increase in crime was related to dramatic increase in poverty
–> Strongly influenced by middle-class belief that unemployment was result of sheer laziness, European states passed poor laws that attempted to force paupers to either find work on their own or enter workhouses (poor living conditions, purposeful)

-Another group of reformers argued that real problem, was that poverty was a result of the moral degeneracy of the lower classes, increasingly labeled the ‘‘dangerous classes’’ because of perceived threat they posed to middle-class society
*belief led one group of secular reformers to form institutes to instruct working classes in applied sciences in order to make them more productive members of society
–> The London
Mechanics’ Institute, established in Britain for example, (One institute in Germany too)

-Organized religion took diff. approach
*British
evangelicals set up Sunday schools to improve the morals of working children & in Germany, evangelical Protestants established nurseries for orphans & homeless children, women’s societies to care for sick & poor, & prison societies that prepared women to work in prisons
*Catholic Church attempted same kind of work through a revival of religious orders –> dedicated priests & nuns used spiritual instruction & recreation to turn young male workers away from moral vices of gambling, drinking &
female workers from lives of prostitution

Question 34

Prison Reform

Answer 34

-Increase in crime led to a rise in arrests
*By 1820s in
most countries, indiscriminate use of capital punishment,
(British had shipped people convicted of serious
offenses to colonial territory of Australia, practice
began to slow down in late 1830s when colonists
loudly objected) even for crimes against property, was increasingly being viewed as ineffective & replaced by imprisonment
*Prisons served to isolate criminals from society, but growing # of reformers questioned purpose & effectiveness, especially when prisoners were subjected to harsh & even humiliating work as punishment
–> wanted to better penal conditions, British & French sent missions to United States in early 1830s to examine how two different systems then
used in American prisons accomplished this goal, At
Auburn Prison in New York, prisoners were separated at night but worked together in same workshop during the day, At Walnut Street Prison in Philadelphia, prisoners were kept separated in individual cells
*both French & British constructed prisons on Walnut Street model w/separate cells that isolated prisoners from one another (believed that solitary confinement forced prisoners to examine
consciences, led to greater remorse & increased
possibility that they would change their evil ways)
–> As prison populations increased, solitary confinement proved expensive & less feasible, French even returned to their custom of sending prisoners to French Guiana to handle overload

Question 35

Rise of Romanticism

Answer 35

-Challenged Enlightenment, balance to reason by emphasizing other means of knowing like intuition & imagination, Romantics help to individualism that emphasized glory of unique traits of each human being

-Jean Jacques Rousseau differed from Enlightenment colleagues by emphasizing feelings & passion sometimes even over reason, believed & taught god was benevolent & accessible thru persons affection (pantheism), alienated deists, also emphasized moral improvement of self & society + w/emphasis on subjectivity he is typically seen as forerunner of Romantic Movement

-Romanticism in Arts: *Romanticism rejected enlightenment’s emphasis on reason & neoclassicism’s emphasis on sterility & control
*emphasized emotional exuberance, imaginative exploration, spontaneity
*See these emphasis’s in romantic literature, some romantic writers felt deeply for their own ppl & their own history, thus produced works that engendered nationalism
–> For example, Grimm Brothers collected German fairy tales & morality stories & published them under title “Children’s & Household Tale”
Felt Germans feel more German
*After French Rev. it became clear to Europeans that revolution, war, & rebellion demonstrated emotional power that comes when ppl r united by nationalism & engage in mass politics

-Romantic poets emphasized love of nature
*William Wordsworth believed humans had a kind of mystical connection to Nature only by learning depths of created order could humans truly know themselves
–> Abandoned structure & rigidity of classical forms of poetry & instead wrote in ordinary language lifting up ordinary objects intro realm of Glorious contemplation

-Visual Artists also had Romantic Spirit
*Art is outer manifestation of artists’s inner feelings
*Art must display emotion, warmth, movement (fundamental rejection of Neoclassical movement’s emphasis on restraint & symmetry)
–> For example, Casper David Friedrich’s painting “The Wanderer Above a Sea of Fog”, clear he had a mystical view of nature but also exhibits emphasis on individualism (single wanderer)

-Music!:
*Beethoven changed it the most: music reflected restrained classicism of teachers & influences but by 1804 he was composing music squarely in romantic strain –> produced fear & rapture, pain & longing, bridge from classical era to Romanticism

-Religion: romanticism revived it!
*Methodism in England as example, movement founded by John Wesley (had profound experience, convinced by that not good deeds) that experience led Wesley to go preaching gospel & that his followers must have a real relationship w/Christ, conversion experience in which saved person encounters god in power, spread rapidly across Europe & then even America
* Especially among German
Romantics, there were many conversions to Catholic
faith

Question 36

Mass Based Political Parties

Answer 36

-As European nations extended right to vote to more & more ppl, political parties had to appeal to more voters’ interests to win offices
*For Example in England the conservative party only cared abt interests of landed elites while liberal party increasingly represented interest of working class so as more & more of working class gained right to vote, liberal party grew in influence & power in 19th cen. & ppl turned to liberal party to enact policies for national education system & public healthy benefit
*Another example is Germany’s Social Democratic Party –> built on Marxist principles of class struggle & worked to improve lives of German working class

Question 37

Labor Unions

Answer 37

-promoted social & economic reforms & some of these even turned into political parties themselves
*For ex before the Social Democratic Party in Germany was a political party it was two independent labor unions (General German Workers’ Association & Social Democratic Workers’ Party)
*Especially prominent in England
*In 1870 Labor Unions gained right to strike –> in 1888 female workers organized strike in match industry & in 1889 London Dock workers did the same
-When WW| rolled around somewhere around 3-4 million workers had organized themselves into labor unions In England & this became a primary way workers agitated reform to wages & working conditions

Question 38

Women’s rights

Answer 38

-Women also pressed for legal economic & political rights + improved working conditions, came about in part bc women were exceedingly involved in broader reform movements that gave them motivation to question their own roes in society
*For example Barbara Smith Bodichon fathered a group of women together who became known as Ladies of Langdon Place –> worked together to extend voting rights to women & recognize women’s rights to property apart from their husband
*Flora Tristan: Worked for Women’s equality in France, but since she was a Utopian Socialist her idea didn’t really seem workable in real world & thus her ideas remained confined to margin of society
*Building on Tristan’s work, the Women’s Social & Political Union emerged in GB in early 20th cen. created by Pankhurst family who organized rallies for women’s equality
–> Most significant rally for women suffrage occurred in 1908 in London’s Hyde Park, in response police attacked demonstrators & jailed many, but Pankhurst continued fighting for Women’s suffrage (a fight that eventually pressured GB to add that issue onto their platform & as a result in 1918 British parliament passed a law enabling men over 21 to vote & women over age of 30 to vote

Question 39

Religious Reformers

Answer 39

-Sunday School Movement: aimed to provide education for working class children & most teaching done by women
*Massive success & as adults brought their children to learn reading, writing, & arithmetic, adults themselves learned too all leading to a more literate & empowered society

-Abolitionist movement sought to ban slavery
*Movement had most success in England where growing out of Abolitionist work of William Wilbur Force by 1838, slavery was abolished across British empire

Question 40

Laissez faire to Interventionist

Answer 40

-Ppl in power wanted gov. out of their business (core idea of liberalism)
-In middle of 19th cen. w/significant problems of overcrowding & crime created by urbanization, ppl began to demand liberal reforms of their gov (get involved into solving their problems)
*As capitalistic societies grew more complex it was no longer practical or desirable for many citizens that the gov. stay completely out of things –> Gov seen as chief mover of social reform

Question 41

Governmental Reform

Answer 41

-Public Health: Edwin Chadwick of GB sought reform for the poor believed one of the major factors of the poor remaining poor was disease (transmitted among poor in high #s bc of filthy & unsanitary living environment
–> Became basis if GB’s first Public Health legislation by which Britain built modern sanitary systems including sewer & clean water systems
–> Reforms very popular, so British parliament continued enacting reforms bc they were popular & the working class began to trust their gov. & decreased possibility of violent class struggles
*Many of the reforms were policies of GB’s Liberal Party, grew to have majority in Parliament by 1906

-Urban Planning: *Napoleon || charged George Housman w/tearing up city to build new one
*Widened boulevards + parks, sewers, aqueducts to lower disease, success has New Paris become model for new ventures & Urban planning all throughout Europe

-Professional Popo as mentioned before

Question 42

Educational Reforms

Answer 42

-Between 1870-1914, majority of European govs passed Compulsory Education laws to get boys and girls between ages 6-12 into school
*Passed these to keep public order, deemed schools to be prime environment to engender nationalism, & economic growth

-Good example was development of kindergartens in Germany –> idea of German reformer Friedrich Frued, believed children should be educated primarily through play & established kindergartens that provided opportunity for children to build w/geometric blocks & engage in play-based activities
–> Revolution of 1848 in Germany caused gov to shut down kindergartens but by then idea had spread to other European States