Ch. 20 & 23 Unit 6a: Industrialization & Mass Society & Progress Flashcards
Agricultural Revolution
DEF: application of new Ag. techniques that allowed 4 large increase in productivity in 1700s
SIG: -sig. increase in food production
-British Ag. = feed more ppl @ lower prices w/less labor
Capital
DEF: material wealth used or available for use in production of more wealth
SIG: -Britain had ready supply of capital transactions for investment in new industrial machines & factories needed to house them
–> ppl accustomed to using paper instruments to facilitate capital transactions due to Britain’s effective central bank & well developed, flexible credit facilities
Tariffs
DEF: duties (taxes) imposed on imported goods, usually to raise revenue & discourage imports & protect domestic industries
SIG: -gave domestically produced products a price advantage, increased prices of imported goods
Trade Unions
DEF: associations of workers in same trade formed to help members secure better wages, benefits, & working conditions
SIG: -preserved workers’ positions by limiting entry into their labor + helped them gain benefits from employers
Marxism
DEF: political, economic, & social theories of Karl Max which included idea that history is a story of class struggle & that ultimately the proletariat (working class) will overthrow the bourgeois & establish a dictatorship en route to a classless society
SIG: -accepted imminent collapse of capitalism & need for socialist ownership of means of production
Evolutionary Socialism
DEF: socialist doctrine espoused by Eduard Bernstein who argued that socialists should stress cooperation & evolution to attain power by democratic means rather than by conflict & revolution
SIG: -challenge to orthodox Marxist position
Mass Society
DEF: society in which the concerns of the majority –lower classes– play a prominent; characterized by extension of voting rights, an improved standard of living 4 lower classes & mass education
SIG: larger & vastly improved Urban environment, new patterns of social structure, gender issues, mass education & mass leisure important features of European society
Why did the Industrial Revolution (1815-1914) begin in England?
-Agricultural Revolution: *Better food production = lower food prices
*People have money to buy manufactured goods
-Abundant supply of capital: *Many entrepreneurs had grown wealthy on back of Cottage Industry –> had $ to invest in new way of manufacturing goods
*Majority of first factory owners = who had been successful in running CI & putting-out system
* + well designed central bank = could loan Capital to entrepreneurs who didn’t already have it
-Abundance of Entrepreneurs: rejected absolutism –> Parliament provided stable govt; laws protected private property & very few restrictions on economy
MEANS IR = DRIVEN BY PRIVATE INVESTORS RATHER THAN GOV.
Why did the Industrial Revolution (1815-1914) begin in England?
-Favorable Government Policies: *Many business minded ppl felt freedom to pursue new opportunities when time was right b/c Parliament passed laws favorable to Entrepreneurship
* Due to Reforms made in 1832, House of Commons had more power in Parliament (house that represented interest of most ppl in working industry)
* Sig. Act = repeal of Corn Laws –> levied steep tariffs on important grain = cheap grain could be imported from elsewhere, so more ppl in city, leaving farms to work mainly in factory
REPEAL = only beginning to larger movement of Parliament to enact free trade agreements –> manufacturing more important b/c exporting manufactured goods = less expensive
Why did the Industrial Revolution (1815-1914) begin in England?
-Rich in mineral resources: *Britain rich in esp. coal & iron
–> backbone of IR
*B/c of small size of Island + new roads * canals –> both transported throughout country @ great speed
*Replaced wood as form or energy
*James Watt created more efficient coal-burning steam engine (THE invention of the IR…or maybe railroads, or the assembly line, or…)
-Abundance of Markets in which to sell goods:
*Massive empire, colonial holdings so ready markets all over world to purchase their manufactured goods
*Raw materials
*Capital coming in & markets for finished goods
*Cottage industry & structure for production
Why did the Industrial Revolution (1815-1914) begin in England?
-Sig. Incentive for Inventors : institutions like British Royal Society of Arts awarded prizes for innovations in tech & AG, so did gov.
Inventions & Changes
-Textile Manufacturing:
*Increase speed & quantity of production
*Spinning Jenny invented by James Hargraves in 1764 –> manufacturing of tetxiles exponentially faster & cheaper
*Richard Arkwright’s Water Frame (1769) –> Used spindles & rollers to create a spinning machine to spin cloth, Massive machinery–needed water to power, must be housed near water-way, By 1770, Arkwright employed 200 people under one roof–first modern factory
Needed a lot of cotton–connection to slavery & colonization
-Steam Engine (1760s):
*Made it possible to build factories in other locations
*Used coal & steam to turn turbines –> powered machines
*James Watt used steam pump to create steam engine which could turn a wheel
-Smelting Iron:
*Need a lot of heat to smelt iron–usually used charcoal, but England was running out of forests & charcoal was limited
*Abraham Darby discovered how to smelt iron using coal (remember this one for later too!)
-The Railroad:
*Perhaps one of the most important products of the IR
*Transport goods, people (also used by British & others to establish presence in colonies)
The Great Exhibition (1851)
-World fair & @ center of exhibition was massive structure built of steel & glass aka Crystal Palace
-Inside palace were exhibits from all over British empire + giant tree growing indoors to show British had completely mastered nature
Slow Adaption of Industrialization
-Lack of good roads & problems w/river transport which made transportation difficult
-Many regions lacked mineral deposits necessary for industry (coal & iron)
-Persistence of old economic arrangements: Guild restrictions, entrepreneurs w/traditional business views (feared risk) + landed nobility had little incentive 2 support industrialization, so peasant workers just left 2 cities 4 manufacturing work
- In places where industrialization hadn’t taken place & primitive agriculture was still practiced, result sometimes = massive & deadly famines
-Irish Potato Famine 1840s & 1850s: potato = staple food of Irish poor, so when blight struck potato crops –> widespread famine, death by starvation, many fled to US & other nations
France’s Industrialization
-It wasn’t until after 1815 industrialization moved to France, & it was slow to adapt
*Main reason was lack of coal & iron deposits
-Before 1815 Napoleon had laid foundations for French industrialization
*Major achievement: Construction of Quentin Canal = major waterway that connected Paris w/iron & coal fields of the north
-French gov. sponsored railroad construction = key to transportation of minerals & manufactured goods
-By 1830s, British weaving tech had been adopted by France
–> established cotton industry & revived flagging silk industry
-Slower Pace of Industrialization in France = massive social upheavals in Britain were more tempered
Spread of Industrialization: Borrowing Techniques & Practices, + Role of Gov.
-IR occurred on continent mostly in 3 major centers between 1815-1850: Belgium, France, German States
-Continental countries, esp. France & Germany just borrowed techniques from Britain (failed attempts to prevent spread of techniques & tech.) & some began to establish technical schools to train engineers & mechanics
-Gov, provided for costs of technical education, awarded grants to inventors & foreign entrepreneur, financed factories, exempted foreign industrial equipment from import duties, actively bore cost of building railroads, canals, roads, & iron rails
*Gov. also used tariffs to encourage industrialization
Spread of Industrial Revolution
-Belgium & Cotton: manufacturing industry spread throughout many regions, old techniques such as hand loom, mixed w/new techniques
-United States:
*Borrowed application of machinery to production from Britain as others did
*Bad system of internal transportation remedied by introduction of steamboats, canals, & railroads
*Labor force primarily from rural areas, women made up 80% of workforce in large textile manufacturing (many farmers, not enough land)
–> Unskilled laborers sought for to induce rapid pace of mechanization, ie. women, children, & immigrants (whole families, widows !!)
-India: mass produced & spread cotton to Britain, with some limitations in the first half of 1800s (British East India Company) imposed by British such as cut credit, increased land & rent prices & increasing transportation costs on goods not approved by them –> control = inexpensive British factory produced textiles
Social Impact of IR: Population Growth
-Pop growth accelerate in 19th century (plus records of deaths, births, marriages)
-Due to decline in death rates (sewer systems!)
-Increasing #s of people involved in industrial work
-Overpopulation magnified existing problem of rural poverty; overpop = emigration (urbanization b/c poor searched for work in cities)
Social of IR: Factories & Work Life
-Shift from working in the home to in factory
*Workers no longer owned means of production, they worked for someone else who owned it & they got paid a wage
*New forms of discipline & shifting social expectations due to working outside the home
–> Most workers were used to erratic & varying hours; Needed to “train” workers to complete same task over & over ; Strict rules, fines, & dismissals were used to keep workers in line
-Morality: *Laziness & wasteful habits were sinful (esp. drunkenness)
*Evangelical values paralleled efforts of factory owners to instill laborers w/their own middle-class values of hard work, discipline, & thrift
-2nd & 3rd generations of industrial workers came to view new “working week” with regular hours & schedules as a natural way of life
-Horrid conditions for work; dangerous, disease, arduous hours & tasks, etc
Social Impact of IR: Child Labor
-Pauper apprentice: orphans or abandoned children apprenticed to factory workers
-Women & children employed in mines cause they were smaller
-Child labor exploited more than ever & in more systemic fashion
-Cheap supply of labor (paid very little, usually dangerous/uncomfortable jobs)
-Led to many developmental issues → Reforms passed in 1830s to protect children & women
Social Impact of IR: Living Conditions
-Miserable: Upper classes could insulate from conditions (suburbs, privacy, etc)
*Lower middle class row houses in center of city
*Working class tenements in deep center of city
*Very poor conditions, crowded, unsanitary, etc.
*Disease rampant, adulteration of food, etc.
Social Impact of IR: New Social Classes
-Middle class/bourgeois went from merchants, officials, artisans, lawyers/scholars –> commerce, industry, banking, professionals
-Industrial Entrepreneurs begin 2 be from diverse social origins (some hereditary still, but many from humble origins!)
Efforts @ Change: The workers
-Workers looked 2 formation of labor organizations to gain decent wages & working conditions
-British gov. (b/c of radicalism of French Rev. working class) passed Acts (1799-1800) outlawing associations of workers BUT legislation failed to prevent Trade Unions (strikes!) –> Eventually led to national unions (Robert Owens)
-Luddites: skilled craftsppl who in 1812 northern England, attack machines who took their jobs (failed @ stopping anything)
-Chartism: attempted 2 encourage change thru peaceful, constitutional means –> 2 national petitions w/their demands had millions of signatures but British parliament rejected both
*true significance = ability to arouse & organize millions of working class men & women
-Romantic poets decried destruction of natural world
1st IR Recap
-1st IR (1750-1830)
*Population growth
*Mechanization, factories
*England
*Coal, textiles, railroads (steam engines)
-Reforms (1830s-ish)
*Public health initiatives: sanitation
*Factory Act 1833; Ten Hours Act 1847: reduced child labor
*Trade unions: better conditions for members
*Luddites: artisans attacked machines for taking their jobs
*Chartims: political democracy; universal male suffrage, eliminate property qualifications for parliament, set precedent of working class organizing, rejected
Society in 1800s
-Police Forces: *Threat of revolutionary upheavals
Urbanization = crime
*Created civilian police forces, well trained law enforcement officers to preserve property & lives
*Some forces became more military-like & were used by the state (Germany)
-Romanticism: *balance/challenge use of reason from Enlightenment
*Emphasized emotion, sentiment, inner feelings
Individualism–interested in unique traits of individuals; rebel against middle class ideals
*Music was very important to romantics; Emergence of Beethoven–music reflected innermost emotions
Second Industrial Revolution (1870 - 1914)
-1st IR = textiles, railroads, iron & coal –> 2nd IR = steel, chemicals, electricity & petroleum
-Manchester, England –> 1st Industrial Park created here = designated area built specifically for manufacturing (specialized in making machines that made other machines) –> Manchester = a city built for industries & inhabitants saw standard of living rise & wealth come pouring in
2nd IR Tech/New Products: Steel!
- 1st major change in industrial development after 1870 was substitution of steel for iron
-New methods of rolling & shaping steel made it useful in construction of lighter, smaller & faster machines & engines, + railways, ships, & armaments
–Krupp Family in Essen Germany = starting in 16th cen, they began manufacturing weapons & by time of 2nd IR –> had perfected process of making steel & by 1870, states from all over Europe & world were buying weapons from Krupp industries so they dominated steel industry for a century!
2nd IR Tech/New Products: Chemicals !
-GB fell behind in new chem industry, change in method of making soda = France & Germany take lead in producing alkaline (used 4 textile, soap & paper)
-Germany overtook British in development of new organic chemical compounds (artificial dyes & nitrates 4 fertilizer)
-Chemical engineering led to improved materials 4 manufacturing: 4 example, Volcanization = chem process that made rubber harder & more durable (big deal bc used widely in factories to make machines turn & effective coating 4 electrical wires
2nd IR Tech/New Products: Electricity!
-New major form of energy that proved to be of great value bc easily converted into other energy like heat light & motion (big power distributions thru practical generators of electrical current, hydroelectric power stations, coal-fired steam generating plants)
-Spawned whole new series of inventions: light bulb by American Thomas Edison & Briton Joseph Swan, telephone in 1876 by Alexander Graham Bell, radio waves sent by Guglielmo Marconi, electric railways, streetcars, subways
-Factories transformed –> conveyer belts, cranes, machines, & machine tools
-Countries w/o coal supplies that lagged behind b4 could now enter IR
-In 1840s, American inventor Samuel Morse invented telegraph = send communications using wires 2 distant places using short & long signals AKA morse code, eventually in 1870s telegraoh wire laid across Atlantic connecting Britain w/US, further linked economy on both sides
2nd IR Tech/New Products: Railroads + Internal Combustion Engine
-Railroads revolutionized transportation industry: dominate landscape @ this point, thousands of new miles of tracks laid (no more water) –> increased commerce by liking distant parts of country into national economy & facilitated more ppl moving from countries 2 cities
-Internal Combustion engine grew in dominance: *first engine, fired by gas & air produced in 1878 (proved unsuitable 4 widespread use as source of power in transportation until development of liquid fuels, petroleum & distilled derivatives)
*First IR powered by steam, second by gasoline –> eventually led to gas powered tractors 4 farming, automobiles
*oil-fired engine was made in 1897
*New innovation led to new industries growing (American Henry Ford! estab. automobile manufacturing site in Manchester)
New Markets in 2nd IR
–Growing use of streetcars –> new leisure travel industry began to rise
-Growth of Industrial production depended on development of markets 4 sales of goods
-After 1870s, best foreign markets saturated so Europeans forced to take renewed look @ domestic markets –> Europeans richest consumers (pop. increases = rise in national incomes, costs of food & goods decline bc of lower transport costs –> more spending on goods!)
-W/increasing availability of consumer goods @ low prices –> advertising industry born & increase in consumerism, department stores sprang up (massive stores w/lots of stuff) so shopping = leisure activity esp among middle class women SO more advertising = more demand for consumer goods & vice versa
-Tariffs
-Cartels formed to decrease competition internally, independent enterprises worked together to control prices & fix production quotas –> restrain competition that led to reduced prices
-Formation of cartels was paralleled by move toward ever-larger manufacturing plant –> led to pressure for greater efficiency in factory production @ same time that competition led to demands for greater economy
New Patterns in Industrial Economy
-Germany vs. GB! (Germany replaces GB) but doesn’t take away from Europe’s division (one side industrialized the other backward & little industrialized) the lesser controlled by industrial countries to provide food & raw materials –> economic division of Europe continued well into 20th century
-Growth of IE led to new patterns for AG –> lower-priced foods & less AG labor (so more expensive) = machines & imported foods in Britain + chemical fertilizers & although low prices (grains 2) had negative impact on farmers, benefited working class & consumption of other foods (b/c money to buy diff foods)
-Industrialization spread beyond Western & Central Europe & North America after 1870 –> Russia & Japan!
*Japan developed key industries in tea silk, armaments, shipbuilding –> workers came from ppl who abandoned their farms b/c of severe hardships in countryside
Women in the IR
-Cult of Domesticity: *Reinforced idea that women should be @ home raising children
*Marriage only honorable career
-“Right to work”: Kept out of industrial jobs; forced to take “sweat” work
-White-Collar Jobs:
*Office, secretaries, clerks, operators, etc.
*Offered some freedom (middle v lower class)
*As public education grew, many women became teachers; extension of “natural role”
-Family planning: Birth rates dropped significantly (nuclear family) –>
*Middle & upper v lower classes
*Attitude shift–wanted smaller families
*Abortion & infanticide or abandonment
~ Way to prevent poverty (really used more by middle class)
-Class-based family life : *Middle class: rigid gender roles, social expectations
–> Women seen as “idle” housewife to world v unpaid work for keeping house
*Working class: hard work, must contribute–shifts by early 1900s–wages improving, some women stay home
Classes in the IR
-Bourgeoisie & Middle class: owners of industry & professionals, high wage earners
*Capitalist factory owners were free to hire labor on their own terms based on market forces (no regulation)
*used government to further their aims, enhance wealth, & continue to oppress working class
-Working Class (Proletariat): wage workers, industrial laborers, not represented
-Socialism:
*Marxism & Socialism: imminent collapse of capitalism & need for socialist ownership of production (sudden & immediate)
*Evolutionary Socialism/revisionism: Eduard Bernstein
–> Challenged Marxism–middle class growing under capitalism & lives of workers improving; advocated for democratic reform rather than revolution (use the right to vote)
*Anarchism: move toward evolutionary socialism made many socialist parties less radical, some resorted to anarchism
–>Mostly in less industrialized countries (Spain, Italy, Russia)
–> In Russia, Mikhail Bakunin = poster boy for anarchism, argued that secret societies ought to lead revolutionary movements to destroy & replace state w/self governing workplaces & commune
–> In France, George Sorel taught that once ppl rose up & destroyed governing authorities, that all property should then be transferred to labor unions (or Syndicate) –> Synficalism!
–>People had been corrupted by state = state & all existing social institutions need to be abolished
–>Turned more violent in late 19th cen.
Economic Troubles
-US & Western Europe experienced Long Depression
-One of major causes = scarcity of money: paper money backed by gold which meant gov only issued amount of paper money that represented gold in national coffins BUT b/c of wars & increasing amount of $ demanded by consumers 2 buy manufactured goods, money became scarce –> led to banks refusing to loan out money 2 investors who wanted 2 build factories
-That further led to increasing unemployment & global crisis was long in correcting itself
How did corporations & governments respond to this crisis?
-Corporations: *Attempted to create monopolies in their industry (So those who could bought up all their competitors & when last one standing in given sector so they could set prices @ whatever they deemed appropriate, usually benefited them & not consumers
-Governments: First addressed crisis w/protective tariffs, however that sometimes led to trade wars so some states developed free trade agreements = stopped tariffs between those two nations & allowed them to trade w/o being taxed significantly
Industrialization in Prussia
-Industrialized well b/c of massive deposits of coal & iron (built many railroads & factories) but trade throughout German States suffered b/c of political tension between them so in order to rectify that situation, Prussia engineered something called Zovarian Agreement
-Effect of Zovarian Agreement was lower barriers to trade barriers life tariffs & customs & thus unite German states economically –> it worked!
-Also put in place the National System (Engineered by economist named Friedrich Liss) idea = nascent German industry needed to be protected from competition from GB, did this by imposing tariffs on imported goods BUT tariffs would only remain in place until their manufacturing sector could compete on equal footing w/Britons
Mass Society
-New, efficient methods of transportation created new industries, improved distribution, & enhanced quality of life, & separated home & work for many
-Pop Growth: decline in death rates & rise in birthrates (but decline b/c of birth control ie condoms & diaphragm but mostly abortion/infanticide/abandonment) + developments in medical science (vaccines like 4 smallpox)
*Reforms transformed unhealthy & overcrowded cities by modernizing infrastructure, regulating public health, reforming prisons, & establishing modern police forces, reforms enacted by governments motivated by such forces as public opinion, prominent individuals, & charity organizations
-New technologies (communication & transportation) resulted in more fully integrated national economies, urbanization, & global economic network
-IR & mass marketing increased production & demand for consumer goods (clothings, processed foods, labor-saving devices)
-Leisure time centered on family/small groups, activities & spaces developed
-Immigration To industrial areas, urbanization
*southern/eastern Europeans to US (60 mil left EU, ~½ to US)
-Education: *Govt supported elementary education
*National/liberal interests
*Skilled workers for Inds.
*Increased literacy = mass-circulation of newspapers
*Reformers promoted compulsory public education to advance goals of public order, nationalism, & economic growth
-Leisure!: *Nightly strolls
*Amusement parks
*Music & dance halls
*Tourism
*Sports! Organized, official, professionalized
-Consumerism: *Purchase material goods
*Department stores!
The National State
-Mass politics became reality largely in Western Europe (reforms encouraged expansion of political democracy thru voting rights 4 men & creation of mass political parties) BUT developments strongly resisted in parts of Europe where old political forces remained strong
-Western European States: parliamentary gov. GB & France saw expansion of right 2 vote, liberal reforms, less successful in Spain & Italy
-Central Euro States (Germany & Austria-Hungary) –> had trappings of Parliamentary gov + legislative bodies & elections by universal male suffrage BUT authoritarian forces (esp. powerful monarchies & conservative social groups) remained strong
-In Eastern Europe, esp Russia, old system of autocracy hardly changed
