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From Flashcardlet > Experimental Research Methods > Flashcards

Experimental Research Methods Flashcards

0
Q

grouped frequencies?

A

every value between and including first and last value

eg. 0-9, 10-19, 20-29

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1
Q

stratified random:

A

groups first formed to ensure even representation of groups

M&F/race

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2
Q

relative frequency?

A

percentage of all elements that fall within each class interval

  frequency / sample size
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3
Q

cumulative frequency?

A

percentage of distribution that lies in or below that particular group

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4
Q

mode:

A

most frequent observation

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5
Q

median:

A

mid point of the distribution (50th percentile)

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6
Q

mean

A

arithmetic average

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7
Q

what is a deviation score?

A

element - mean

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8
Q

how do you calculate variance?

A

mean of the SQUARE of all deviation scores

variance = sum (X - mean)^2 / number of elements in population

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9
Q

what is different about sample variance?

A

divide by sample size - 1

instead of just normal sample size

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10
Q

what is the standard deviation?

A

the square root of the variance

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11
Q

what % of distribution falls within 1 standard deviation?

A

68%

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12
Q

what % of distribution falls within 2 standard deviations?

A

95%

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13
Q

what % of distribution falls within 3 standard deviations?

A

99.7%

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14
Q

what % of distribution falls ABOVE or BELOW 2 standard deviations?

A

95% within 2 standard deviations
therefore 5% above and below
or 2.5% below, and 2.5% above

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15
Q

what % of distribution falls below 1 standard deviation?

A

well 68% within 1 standard deviation
and 16% below -1 standard deviation
68+16 = 84

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16
Q

what is the standard deviation a measure of?

A

measure of variability

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17
Q

how do you calculate SEM - Standard Error of the Mean

A

standard deviation / square root of n

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18
Q

what is the null hypothesis?

A

this hypothesis you assume to be true

Ho = whatever you’re researching has NO effect -> no difference in mean

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19
Q

what is the alternate hypothesis?

A

Ha or H1 = whatever you’re researching does have an effect -> difference in mean

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20
Q

at what value do you reject the null?

A

if you get a p value of < 0.05

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21
Q

What is the P-value?

A
  • “probability” value
  • % under the curve converted to decimal
    eg. 0.3% under curve(p-value), 0.002 probability value
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22
Q

what is a type 1 error?

A

error of rejecting the null hypothesis even through it is true

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23
Q

what is a type 2 error?

A

failing to reject the null hypothesis, when the alternate hypothesis is actually true

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24
Q

what is degrees of freedom and how is it calculated?

A

expression of sample size

df = n - 1

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25
Q

how do you calculate chi-square?

A

sum of (observed - expected)^2 / expected

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26
Q

aims of medical research?

A
  • cure disease
  • prevent
  • improve productive lifespan
  • save $$ from health cost
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27
Q

what are the governing principles for the Australian code for the care and use of animals for scientific purpose?

A

3 R’s
Replacement
Reduction
Refinement

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28
Q

describe “replacement” principle:

  • ethical animal conduct
A

Replacement = methods that permit a given purpose of an activity or project to be achieved without the use of animals
eg. use of human instead - they can give consent for the most part

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29
Q

describe “reduction” principle:

  • ethical animal conduct
A

methods for obtaining comparable levels of info from the use of fewer animals in scientific procedures or for obtaining more into from the same number of animals
eg. use pre-existing data

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30
Q

describe “refinement” principle:

  • ethical animal conduct
A

methods that alleviate or minimise potential pain and distress, and enhance animal wellbeing
eg. allow animals to “acclimatise” to new environment and equiptment

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31
Q

levels of randomised control bias:

A

1 - systematic reviews of RCTs
2 - one RCT
3 - pseudo-randomised controlled trial
3.2 - comparative study with concurrent controls
3.3 - comparative study without concurrent controls
4 - case-series

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32
Q

describe the structure of a scientific study write up?

A 
abstract
intro
methods
results 
discussion
references
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33
Q

describe prediction by interpolation:

A

when dosage lies within tested range

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34
Q

describe prediction by extrapolation:

A

new dosage outside original range

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35
Q

steps in experimental process?

A

1) research question
2) hypothesis
3) data analysis
4) conclusion

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36
Q

how can we typically calculate the 95% Confidence Interval?

A

SEM x z-score

z-score for 95% confidence = 1.96

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37
Q

what can be assumed about the 95% Confidence Interval if the P<0.05?

A

the 95% confidence interval will not contain a zero

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38
Q

what does the P-value allow you to answer?

A

if there is no correlation between the 2 variables, what is the chance of observing a correlation as far from zero as we have observed, by chance(random sampling) alone?

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39
Q

what does placebo stop people from doing?

A

stops them hunting around for another treatment because many may believe they have the treatment

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40
Q

pseudo-random

A

kinda random but not, you can figure out the pattern

like dates of birth, days of the week

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41
Q

what is the null hypothesis:

A

whatever you’re researching has NO effect

-> no diff. in mean

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42
Q

steps of hypothesis testing?

A

1) state the Ho and Ha
2) select decision criteria (P<0.05)
3) establish critical values (direction & df)
4) draw random sample, calculate mean
5) calculate S & SEM
6) calculate t-statistic for sample mean
7) compare t with critical values -> reject or retain the null hypothesis

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43
Q

what could increase the power of an experiment?

A
  • eliminating inter-subject variation (eg. age)
  • increased sample size
  • minimising instrument errors
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44
Q

define knowledge translation

A

the synthesis, exchange & ethically sound application of knowledge by relevant stakeholders to accelerate the benefits of global and local innovation in strengthening health systems and advancing peoples health

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45
Q

what is knowledge creation?

A

primary research

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46
Q

what is knowledge distillation?

A

creation of systematic reviews/guidelines

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47
Q

what is knowledge dissemination?

A

appearances in journals and presentations

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48
Q

what people are involved in knowledge translation?

A

health care professionals/providers(clinicians)
patients
managers
policy makers

49
Q

identify and briefly discuss 4 factors that are known to influence how easily research evidence is translated into policy or practice:

A

1) what: is being implemented, characteristics of implementation
2) who: characteristics of target groups,
3) where: features of the context in which you are attempting to implement
4) how: process used to facilitate implementation
eg. generally need tailored interactive and multi-faceted approach

50
Q

what 3 assumptions underpin the knowledge translation metaphor?

A

1st: ‘knowledge’ equates with objective, impersonal research findings
2nd: it is useful to conceptualise a ‘know-do’ gap between scientific facts and practice
3rd: practice consists of a series of rational decisions on which scientific research findings can be brought to bear

51
Q

why does the ‘know-do’ gap exist?

A

1) lack of standardised and up to date practice guidance

2) need for a better design and more effective use of electronic information system

52
Q

in terms of qualitative studies what could be some patient level factors?

A
  • perceived benefits and drawbacks
  • ability to self-manage(if applicable)
  • acceptability of equipment used,
  • desire/demand for extra support/technology/
53
Q

in terms of qualitative studies what could be some clinical level factors?

A
  • personal experience
  • politics and personalities
  • trust in evidence base
54
Q

in terms of qualitative studies what could be some organisation level factors?

A
  • service investment requirements

- impact on non-pump population

55
Q

in terms of qualitative studies what could be some system level factors?

A
  • commissioning pump services

- who pays ad how

56
Q

language and terminology likely to be used to describe the process of moving research into policy and practice:

A

knowledge translation, mobilisation, utilisation, exchange, transfer
implementation science, translational science, research utilisation

57
Q

define efficacy:

A

ability of an intervention to produce results under ideal conditions
eg. RCT with well staffed & motivated patients

58
Q

define effectiveness:

A

ability of intervention to produce results in general use

59
Q

define mobilisation:

A

moving available knowledge into active use

60
Q

define utilisation:

A

extent to which potential access is converted into realised access

61
Q

what is implementation science?

A

study of methods to promote the integration of research findings and evidence into healthcare policy and practice

62
Q

how can qualitative research help with decision making?

A

1) directing and informing policy and program development
2) assisting in program design
3) considering individual health decisions, actions, impacts
4) directing and informing policy and program evaluation

63
Q

3 considerations - in place of experiments in the universe of health research:

A

1) efficacy and effectiveness
2) questions of meaning
3) public health approaches

64
Q

what is PICO?

A

a framework for evidence-based decision process - study design

helps you answer clinical questions using research data

65
Q

what does PICO stand for?

A 
P = patient/populaiton
I = intervention
C = comparison/control
O = outcomes
66
Q

define a systematic review:

A

a review in which there is..

  • comprehensive search for relevant studies on a specific topic
  • studies identified are then appraised
  • and synthesised according to a pre-determined and explicit method
67
Q

meta-analysis:

A
  • quantitative analysis of results
  • putting available studies together increases statistical power
    => decreases likelihood of type 1&2 errors
  • generalisability of results improved by combing studies
68
Q

when do you use a one sample z-test?

A

when there is just 1 mean and you know the standard deviation

69
Q

when do you use a one sample t-test?

A

when there is just one mean but you DO NOT know the standard deviation

70
Q

when do you use a 2 sample t-test?

A

when there are 2 means

71
Q

matched/paired/pooled t-test?

A

used when 2 measurements on each subject

72
Q

when do you use chi-square test?

A

OBSERVED

EXPECTED values

73
Q

what is regression/correlation useful/often used for?

A

to predict the value of one variable based on another variable

74
Q

what is the equation of a line

A

y = mx + b

Y = b0 + b1*X

b0 = intercept
b1 = slope
75
Q

how do you calculate slope?

A

y = y2 - y1 / x2 - x1

76
Q

requirements of a well designed study

A

1) absence of bias
2) sufficient power
3) exploration of range of applicability
4) keep it simple: minimise chance of making mistake
5) amenable to statistical analysis

77
Q

why do experiments with/in humans?

A
  • results applicable “human are humans”
  • can directly study the actual disease/problem(model not the same)
  • subjects can describe how they’re feeling
  • humans can consent to participate
  • test real life situations
  • can be cheaper
78
Q

why do animal experiments?

A
  • test causality or establish mechanisms
  • eliminate variation(genetic, environmental), confunding
  • some experiments are impossible in humanseg.killing to collect tissue
  • establishing safety before human
  • no problems with adherence to protocol
  • get enough subject
79
Q

what different categories of people does an animal ethics committee consist of?

A

A: vet
B: recent/current experience in use of animals for scientific purposes
C: RSPCA/animal welfare
D: random person, generally older person
E: person looking after animals within institution

80
Q

when using animals you need to consider?

A

3 R’s
Replacement: achieved without use of animals
Refinement: minimise pain, enhance wellbeing
Reduction: fewer animals, or same info from same amount of animals

81
Q

what are the NHMRC levels of evidence for interventions?

A

I: systematic review trial
II: one RCT
III: pseudo-RCT
III-2: comparative study with concurrent controls
III-3: comparative study withOUT concurrent controls
IV: case-series

82
Q

what is randomisation?

A

allocation of treatment to trial participants based on chance

83
Q

what is selection bias?

A

good generation of random sequence that cannot be determined by anyone(concealment of allocation)
*before trial starts

84
Q

what is performance bias?

A

blinding of participants and personnel

*once trial has started

85
Q

what is attrition bias?

A

maintaining blinding of participants especially

*avoid placebo group sourcing treatments else where

86
Q

what is detection bias?

A

blinding of outcome assessors especially

  • avoid favouring of certain participants
87
Q

what is reporting bias?

A

select the good results to report, or conflict of interest

88
Q

what are the 4 pillars of ethical research?

A

1) merit & integrity
2) justice
3) beneficience
4) respect to persons

89
Q

describe pillar 1: merit and integrity of ethical research:

A
  • honesty in research

- ensuring legitimate search of knowledge

90
Q

describe pillar 2: justice of ethical research:

A
  • do not “lie”
  • selection, recruitment, exclusion and inclusion of research participants must be reasonable
  • fair distribution of benefits and burdens
91
Q

describe pillar 3: beneficence of ethical research:

A
  • minimise risk of harm to participants

- offers benefits to society

92
Q

describe pillar 4: respect to persons of ethical research:

A

recognition of their intrinsic value, respect privacy, confidentiality

93
Q

what is the most important pillar of ethical research?

A

respect to persons!

94
Q

describe informed consent:

A

voluntary, based on sufficient info, adequate understanding of research and implications of participation

*basically no coerce - cannot black mail/pressure/manipulate people to do shit

95
Q

what does it mean if the confidence interval line on a forest plot crosses the mid line?

A

if the confidence interval line of a study crosses the mid line the results of the study are NOT statistically significant

96
Q

in a forest plot what does the size of each diamond show?

A

the size of each data point or diamond shows sample size of each study

97
Q

when studies are put into funnel plot what does it show?

A

it shows presence of performance bias within the study

98
Q

in a funnel plot what is along the x axis?

A

favours treatment —————————— favors control

99
Q

in a funnel plot how would you identify the presence of bias?

A

when there is a big gap

  • has been in right bottom in all diagrams i’ve seen
100
Q

name the major types of variables and their sub-topics:

A 
categorical= regular(M/F, nationality) & ordinal(categories ascending & descending)   
numerical= continuous -> interval, ratio & discrete -> counts(# of kids)
101
Q

example of catagorical regular data:

A

M/F
marital status
nationality

102
Q

example of categorical ordinal:

A

things that can be placed in ascending or descending order

103
Q

what type of data would age be?

A

numerical continuous ratio

104
Q

what type data is size?

A

categorical ordinal

105
Q

what type of data is sex?

A

categorical regular

106
Q

what type of data would the number of kids be?

A

numerical discrete

107
Q

what hypothesis do you assume to be true?

A

null

108
Q

2 possible consequences for not blinding?

A

1) performance bias - blinding of patients & personnel

2) attribution bias - maintaining patient blinding to prevent drop out and seeking treatment else where

109
Q

if by chance the control group of a study contained bias eg. more horrible children or older average age how would this influence interpretation of results?

..what statistical test could analysis this accurately?

A

control would have higher or lower dependent variable at baseline

repeated measures analysis
-> looks at change from baseline in each group

110
Q

in a question where 2 measures are taken from the same subject what statistical test is likely to be used?

A

paired t-test

111
Q

in a question where there are 2 means what statistical test is likely to be used ?

A

2 sample t test

112
Q

in a question where there are 2 cohorts with no association to each other in a study what statistically test is likely to be used?

A

chi-squared

113
Q

what is a major purpose of random assignment in a clinical trial?

A

to help ensure that study subjects are representative of the general population

114
Q

how do you find the mean if the study is paired?

A

paired means 2 measures are taken on the same subjects

therefore you must find the mean difference for each participant
eg. post-treatment x - pre-treatment x
then sum the differences and divide by sample size = sample mean

115
Q

what is the difference between df with 2 means?

A

(n treatment + n control) - 2

116
Q

if people are recruited from different places how does this effect the results of the trial?

A

it shouldn’t effect the results of the trial as long as participants are properly randomly allocated
(random allocation prevents selection bias)

117
Q

what kind of bias is it when people seek other treatment?

A

performance bias

118
Q

what kind of bias is it when participants have a lack of interest?

A

attribution bias

119
Q

how would you go about answering this question?

“Is attrition bias likely to be a problem in this study?”

A

think of all the reasons why participants could become demotivated and drop out of the study

From Flashcardlet (34 decks)

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