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A-Level Biology > Experimental Methods > Flashcards

Experimental Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

Accuracy

A

How close a measurement/reading is to its true value

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2
Q

Systematic errors

A

Faulty instruments or flaws in experimental procedure - repeated consistently

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3
Q

Random errors

A

Unexpected environmental changes - different each time experiment is carried out

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4
Q

Precision

A

How similar repeats/readings are to each other ; greater number of decimal places = more precise

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5
Q

Reliability

A

Experiments are repeated to ensure reliability/repeatability of results

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6
Q

Validity

A

Other variables are identified and controlled to ensure validity

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7
Q

Different combinations of genes/alleles

A

2 to the power of number of homologous chromosomes - meiosis

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8
Q

What vessels have sphincter muscles

A

Arterioles

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9
Q

Lub dub

A

Closing of av and then closing of semi lunar

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10
Q

Increase co2 concentration

A

Decreases pH

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11
Q

Chloroplasts vs mitochondria comparison

A

Chloroplasts bigger than mitochondria

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12
Q

What are stem cells in plants

A

Pluripotent

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13
Q

Amylase breaking down starch

A

Into maltose

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14
Q

When adding a stain…?

A

Place stain at edge of sample and not the centre
Remove excess stain using blotting paper
45 degrees

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15
Q

What does using more than one stain do?

A

Improves contrast

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16
Q

Ensure stain

A

COVERS WHOLE SAMPLE

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17
Q

Eukaryotic vs prokaryotic

A

Eukaryotic contains membrane bound organelles

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18
Q

Capture recapture formula

A

(Number in 1st sample) * (number in 2nd sample)
DIVIDED BY NUMBER IN 2ND SAMPLE THAT IS MARKED

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19
Q

Action potential type of response?

A

Positive feedback loop reinforces influx of Na+ ions

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20
Q

Phosphate group in ATP

A

ATP contains 3 phosphate groups

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21
Q

Why do we want dna replication to produce two new genetically identical strands

A

Minimises risk of mutations - have to be genetically identical

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22
Q

Test for starch

A

Iodine SOLUTION (+ potassium iodide)

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23
Q

Reducing sugars test

A

Benedict’s solution + heat

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24
Q

What type of sample is Benedict’s/biuret

A

Alkaline

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25
Q

Why is taking the mean into account a bad thing sometimes?

A

Since it includes any outliers while mode does not

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26
Q

Mitosis purpose

A

Gametes from haploid cells
Clonal expansion
Making new stem cells

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27
Q

What does bile do?

A

Emulsify lipids physically breaking them down into smaller droplets and increasing SA

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28
Q

Inspiration

A

External intercostal muscles contract

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29
Q

Effectors

A

Cannot be bones - they will be the muscles that move the bone

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30
Q

How is carbon dioxide mainly transported around the blood

A

Hydrogencarbonate

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31
Q

Companion cells adaptation

A

Lot of mitochondria

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32
Q

Adaptation of gills of fish

A

Stacked against each other - movement is stopped - slows down rate off low thus increases diffusion

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33
Q

Viewing the heart

A

Lateral cross section - staining/microscope

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34
Q

Haemoglobinic acid

A

H+ + Hb forms haemoglobinic acid ; acts as a buffer

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35
Q

Casparian strip

A

Partially permeable membrane - filters it through ; toxins are removed

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36
Q

How do assimilates move through phloem

A

By mass flow
They move into the phloem through plasmodesmata (H+ ions)

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37
Q

Examples of sinks

A

Root
Meristem - rapidly dividing

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38
Q

Phagocytes

A

Macrophages and neutrophils - macrophages from APCs and neutrophils carry out phagocytosis

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39
Q

Membrane functions

A

Site of chemical reactions - ATP synthase etc
Compartmentalisation - concentration gradients/stable environment
Allow substances to enter and leave (partially permeable)
Cell communication/signalling glycoproteins

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40
Q

Coenzymes

A

Vitamins

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41
Q

Cofactors

A

Minerals

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42
Q

Which way does water vapour flow through a leaf?

A

Palisade mesophyll - spongy mesophyll - air spaces

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43
Q

When measuring cell size in a microscope

A

Take repeat measurements at the end and calculate a mean

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44
Q

Photorespiration

A

At higher temperatures - oxygen competes with carbon dioxide for active site of RUBISCO thus less GP (and thus TP) produced ; RuBP is not regenerated

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45
Q

Less co2

A

Less carbon fixation - less TP made ; need for ATP and reduced NADP is lower which slows down light dependent stage ; ATP and reduced NADP accumulates and leads to end product inhibition

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46
Q

Fats

A

Are also non-polar ; thus do not affect osmotic potential

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47
Q

When you are removing glucose from free ends what are you doing

A

Hydrolysing glucose monomers

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48
Q

Cellulose property

A

Inert

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49
Q

Synthesis of polynucleotides/triglycerides

A

Involves formation of ester bonds

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50
Q

Triglycerides/lipids

A

High ratio of hydrogen to oxygen

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51
Q

Benefit of animal fats being saturated/harder

A

Role in protection/insulation as well as energy storage

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52
Q

Differences in species how determined

A

Cytochrome C
RNA polymerase

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53
Q

How to improve uncertainty

A

Use more precise equipment callipers etc

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54
Q

Problem with using colorimeter on a leaf

A

Accessory pigments/chlorophyll are also present which may interfere

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55
Q

Pressure in lymph

A

Low

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56
Q

Primary defence mechanisms

A

Blood clotting

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57
Q

Small isolated populations

A

Can be easily wiped out by disease

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58
Q

Disadvantage of no organelles in erythrocytes

A

No respiration from mitochondria
Does not divide
Protein synthesis

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59
Q

Explain differences in size of organelles/specimens?

A

One’s been cut longitudinally the other transversely
Some organelles are undergoing mitosis/beginning to divide

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60
Q

Purpose of mitosis (apart from growth/repair/AR)

A

Maintaining set number of chromosomes

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61
Q

Advantage of umbilical cord stem cells

A

Easier to extract/harvest
Can be stored for the future

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62
Q

Trunk swelling outside

A

Hydrostatic pressure has increased somehow water comes into the cells
Or cells are rapidly dividing

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63
Q

Lignin in xylem

A

Waterproofing

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64
Q

Glycoproteins

A

Cell adhesion - big role in holding them together in tissues

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65
Q

Artery collagen

A

Thick - strengthens against pressure of the blood

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66
Q

Smooth muscle arteries

A

Contract - direct how much blood flow
Maintain pressure alongside elastin - stretche/recoil

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67
Q

Lumen

A

Smooth - reduces friction as blood flows through

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68
Q

Coronary heart disease factors

A

Saturated fats
Obesity
Age (as you get older)
Diabetes
Gender

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69
Q

Risk factors for type 2 diabetes

A

Age
Genetic history
Gender - more common in males
Obese
Sedentary lifestyle

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70
Q

Adaptations to respire longer anaerobicallu

A

Tolerant to lactate/low ph/high CO2 concentration
Greater affinity for oxygen

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71
Q

Faster diffusion of ions in action potential

A

Faster depolarisation
Shorter refractory period

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72
Q

Importance of refractory period

A

Ensures that action potentials are discrete events and stopping them merging into each other
Impulses can only travel in one direction

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73
Q

Tissue that lines proximal convoluted tubule

A

Columnar epithelial

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74
Q

Purpose of microvilli in PCT

A

Increase SA allowing greater volume of filtrate to be reabsorbed

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75
Q

PCT

A

Selective reabsorption - using Co-transport/active transport
Water follows by osmosis so concentration of ions/urea in filtrate increases

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76
Q

Anticoagulants haemodialysis

A

Stop blood clotting in the machine
Afterwards they are removed to allow blood to clot normally

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77
Q

Why are cells packed together in PCT

A

No fluid can pass between the cells ; must pass through cells

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78
Q

Urethra

A

Leaves body - excretion
Ureter is from kidney to bladder

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79
Q

What to ensure when doing photosynthesis experiments?

A

Ensuring CO2 is in excess

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80
Q

Erector pilli response in fight or flight

A

Makes the animal look bigger

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81
Q

Hypothalamus nervous system?

A

Also a part of nervous system - osmoreceptors are nervous system ; NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CYCLE

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82
Q

Atrial fibrillation

A

Has taller QRS complex - shorter squiggly lines between them

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83
Q

Why do aerobically fit people have smaller heart rate?

A

Increased stroke volume
Thicker heart muscle
Increased ventricular volume

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84
Q

How do calcium ions go back into sarcoplasmic reticulum

A

Via active transport

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85
Q

High respiratory quotient like glucose vs fats (low RQ)

A

More oxidised - requires less oxygen
Fatty acids are less oxidised - low respiratory requiring highest amount of oxygen for complete oxidation

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86
Q

Where do chloroplasts store food?

A

Starch grains

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87
Q

What type of light can penetrate furthest through water

A

Light of shorter wavelength

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88
Q

Reasons for why you need to work fast in an experiment

A

Minimise evaporation of any solvent/liquids - reduce degradation of pigments

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89
Q

Why is ice cold ethanol and sucrose used?

A

To slow down rate of enzyme reaction and prevent damage to chloroplasts

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90
Q

What does high temperature do to chlorophyll pigment

A

Destroys chlorophyll pigment

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91
Q

What is a limiting factor?

A

A factor that determines the rate of the reaction at lower levels

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92
Q

Microorganism population growth

A

Original population * 2^n

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93
Q

Where is light chain on antibody

A

OUTSIDE BIT

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94
Q

Primary immune response

A

Relatively slow production of a small number of correct antibodies the FIRST TIME A PATHOGEN IS ENCOUNTERED

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95
Q

How to increase reliability?

A

Calculate a mean - measure more cells ; discard anomalous ones etc

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96
Q

What accepts hydrogen in anaerobic respiration yeast?

A

Ethanal

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97
Q

Advantage of anaerobic respiration?

A

Allows glycolysis to take place

98
Q

Release of insulin

A

Low glucose concentration - resting potential - K+ ions can move out of KATP channels - maintains resting potential
High glucose level - glucose moves in via transporter and metabolised to produce ATP via aerobic respiration ; inhibits opening of potassium channels - closes K+ ions moving out ; causes membrane to depolarise and Volta gated ions can move in ; bind to secretory vesicles allowing them to fuse with plasma membrane and release by exocytosis

99
Q

Non specific methods

A

Blood clotting
Skin - sebum ; flora
Chemicals - mucus/lysozymes

100
Q

Mast cells release

A

Histamines (heat+redness) and cytokines attract phagocytes

101
Q

Clotting factors

A

Turn prothrombin into thrombin - fibrinogen into fibrin - mesh together + collagen and seal the wound
Positive feedback

102
Q

Seed germination

A

Gibberellins - released ; digestive enzymes break down food stores to release glucose for growth

103
Q

Cell elongation

A

Auxin binds to receptor - H+ ions pumped in - low ph levels causing cellulose become more flexible/stretchy and absorbs water

104
Q

High auxin concentration

A

Apical shoot growth
Less lateral shoot growth

105
Q

Low auxin concentration

A

Low apical shoot growth
More lateral shoot growth

106
Q

Why May you want fewer gibberellins in plants?

A

Less waste
Prevent crop damage by bad weather

107
Q

Chlorosis

A

Plant environmental variation causes change in phenotype - leaves look yellow

108
Q

Causes of chlorosis

A

Lack of light - turn off chlorophyll production to conserve resources
Mineral deficiencies - lack of iron or magnesium - plant cannot make chlorophyll
Virus infection - interfere with metabolism

109
Q

Codominance

A

2 different alleles for a gene both equally as dominant thus both expressed (pink flowers - red and white)

110
Q

Blood group

A

IA IB - codominant
IO - recessive

111
Q

23rd Pair

A

Sex chromosomes - XX females XY males

112
Q

Males more susceptible to sex linked diseases?

A

MALES ON,Y REQUIRE ONE ALLELE ON THE X CHROMOSOME TO BE RECESSIVE ; FEMALES WILL HAVE A DOMINANT ALLELE ON THE OTHER X CHROMOSOME

113
Q

Haemophilia

A

No clotting protein - very slow process

114
Q

Faulty haemophilic gene X^h

A
115
Q

I^o

A

No antigen on the surface of RBCs hence they are universal donors - no immune system rejecting that RBC since there is no antigen

116
Q

Dihybrid

A

Both genes inherited as separate units

117
Q

Dihybrid

A

2 genes - each gamete - 2 alleles

118
Q

Unexpected ratios due to

A

Autosomal linkage (no crossing over occurred to separate these genes)
Random fertilisation

119
Q

If chi squared significant

A

Then linkage/epistasis has occurred

120
Q

Epistasis

A

A gene on a particular chromosome is expressed producing a protein which stimulates or inhibits gene B expression
INTERACTION OF GENES AT DIFFERENT LOCI

121
Q

Dominant epistasis

A

Requires gene A to be AA or Aa to produce protein to express B

122
Q

Recessive epistasis

A

Chromosome A produces aa (recessive) - does not produce protein and thus B not expressed

123
Q

Assumptions of hardy Weinberg

A

Assuming random mating
No mutations
Large population size (migrating)
No selection pressures (evolving)

124
Q

What is hardy Weinberg

A

In a stable, non-evolving population - allele frequencies stay constant

125
Q

4 major factors that affect evolution

A

Mutation - genetic variation ; advantageous allele
Changes to population size - density dependent factors (competition - affect size)/density independent factors (regardless of size - climate change/natural disasters)
Genetic drift - prevalent in small populations ; random mutation/selection pressure

126
Q

Gene flow

A

Alleles from one place to another - migration (seasonal often) SMALL CHANGE

127
Q

Genetic bottleneck

A

LARGER change - irreversible change to total number of alleles ; natural disasters - affects future generations - alleles decreases

128
Q

Founder effect

A

Genetic drift - mutation from small gene pool that gives favourable gene which can outcompete rest of population forming a new colony

129
Q

Founder effect

A

A few individuals’ alleles eventually form whole new populations

130
Q

Selection of favourable alleles (4th factor affecting evolution)

A

Sexual selection ; more alleles that promote mating success (passing on this allele)
Natural selection - more alleles that promote survival success

131
Q

Stabilising selection

A

NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
AVERAGE PHENOTYPE IS SELECTED (SPIKE IN MIDDLE) ; BABY WEIGHT ; UNDERWEIGHT/OVERWEIGHT LESS LIKELY TO SURVIVE - PASSING ON GENE FOR BABIES WITH NORMAL WEIGHT TO BE BORN

132
Q

Directional selection

A

One extreme is favoured - industrial evolution selection pressure of moths ; population of darker moths increases

133
Q

Disruptive selection

A

Both extremes are selected
Duller feathers left alone survive longer
Bright feathers too frightening left alone survived longer
Can mate and pass on genes

134
Q

Speciation precursor

A

Always underlying genetic variation

135
Q

Allopatric

A

Physical barrier has separated population subject to different selection pressures - different genotypes/alleles are favoured (selected and survived and passed on - hence genotype and phenotype more prevalent)- CHANGE IN ALLELE FREQUENCY due to new habitat

136
Q

Allopatric speciation

A

Just happen over several generations

137
Q

Sympatric speciation

A

Happens in same habitat - mating preferences/disruptive selection causing new species to form
Much rarer
Physically cannot recognise other members of same species due to variation
Only reproduce with those that animals could recognise (selective breeding is similar to sympatric speciation)

138
Q

Faeces

A

COLOURED FROM BILE

139
Q

How to show uncertainty

A

If error bars overlap

140
Q

Collagen

A

Glycine

141
Q

Cysteine

A

Has many disulfide bridges

142
Q

As you increase temperature of cell surface membrane

A

GAPS BETWEEN PHOSPHOLIPIDS INCREASE - PERMEABILITY INCREASES

143
Q

How does frosting/defrosting impact cell surface membrane

A

Ice/water expansion damaged membrane (punctures it) increasing permeability

144
Q

Why are there two tubes in a respirometer?

A

Compensate for temperature changes by evening out the pressure on both sides

145
Q

Why is there a filter paper with KOH solution in respirometer

A

Increase SA for CO2 absorption

146
Q

Rate of movement of water in pathways?

A

Movement of water in symplastic is slower than apoplastic

147
Q

Pancreatic exocrine function

A

Pancreatic juice into duodenum/digestive enzymes to epithelium in a vessel

148
Q

If asking for other possible factors always mention

A

Possibly epigenetics factors
Other underlying health diseases

149
Q

Downside of stem cell

A

Risk of cancer

150
Q

Liver cells adaptation

A

Thin/flat cells
Increase rate of diffusion
Fenestrations also increase permeability

151
Q

At the sinks of plants

A

Sucrose is converted back into glucose to be used for respiration/stored as starch

152
Q

Myosin molecules

A

Fibrous protein molecules with a globular head

153
Q

What required ATP in muscle contraction

A

Return of calcium ions into sarcoplasmic reticulum and return movement of myosin head that causes actin filaments to slide

154
Q

How is ATP supplied for muscle contraction

A

Aerobic respiration takes too long ; anaerobic respiration is still 10 seconds - phosphocreatine is a molecule stored by muscles that can be used for rapid production of ATP

155
Q

Equation of phosphocreatine

A

Phosphate ion from phosphocreatine + ADP -> ATP + creative

156
Q

When is phosphocreatine utilised

A

Muscles of a sprinter - continuous contracting until mitochondria is able to supply ATP ; afterwards once used up then rate of muscle contraction must EQUAL rate of ATP production (from both aerobic and anaerobic respiration)

157
Q

Cardiac muscle

A

Have intercalated discs help in contraction + striated

158
Q

Smooth

A

Pupil size
Bladder
Digestive systems
Bronchioles etc

159
Q

Myofibrils

A

Long cylindrical units

160
Q

Whenever an ion binds

A

CONFORMATIONAL CHANGE

161
Q

Cardiac output

A

Stroke volume * heart rate

162
Q

Formation of urea equation

A

Requires co2 and nh3 ; water is what is converted to urea when going from arginine to Ornithine

163
Q

What happens to lactate in anaerobic respiration

A

Broken down by oxygen in the liver (oxygen debt) turned into glucose

164
Q

Functions of liver

A

Formation of urea
Storage of glycogen
Detoxification

165
Q

Urea vs ammonia

A

Urea is less soluble and less toxic

166
Q

Hormone metabolism

A

Protein hormones like insulin and glucagon are hydrolysed into amino acids which are then converted into urea

167
Q

Peptide hormones

A

ADH

168
Q

Dehydrogenase

A

Used wherever there is a transfer of a hydrogen atom from an organic molecule to an inorganic one

169
Q

What substances ionise in respiration

A

Pyruvate
Citrate
OAA

170
Q

What occurs at the cristae

A

OXIDATION OF NADH

171
Q

Where is proton gradient in chloroplast

A

Thylakoid membrane

172
Q

Diameter tubing questions

A

Figure out surface area of bubble using RADIUS given
Then multiply by length/any rate given

173
Q

End point of dcpip

A

Pink colour - not colourless

174
Q

Increase in concentration for every 1 unit

A

Final value/initial value divided by (difference of NUMBER OF UNITS)

175
Q

Why is it best not to add indicator to the test tube

A

As it may affect the progress of the reaction

176
Q

How to improve validity of sample taking

A

Take samples at more frequent intervals

177
Q

How to increase validity if an experiment

A

Add buffer to control pH

178
Q

Little variation

A

High repeatability

179
Q

What do error bars do

A

THEY OVERLAP

180
Q

Gas collected

A

= water displaced

181
Q

Commercial effect of inhibitor

A

More inhibitor wastes money

182
Q

Planning an experiment

A

Variables
Repeatability (quantitative processing for example)
Risk Assessment
Scientific apparatus

183
Q

How would water on the leaves affect transpiration rate

A

Water could block the stomata

184
Q

Hydrophytes

A

Water lost is easily replaced - plentiful water

185
Q

How does ph affect rf values

A

Ph of the solvent influences rates at which X and Y migrate

186
Q

How high should solvent line be

A

1 cm away from amino acids to prevent the acids dissolving

187
Q

How to improve resolution of TLC

A

Use longer filter paper

188
Q

How does increase temperature affect heart rate?

A

Increases heart rate to get rid of excess heat by dilating arterioles (and thus capillaries)

189
Q

Why are daphnia used?

A

Fewer ethical considerations

190
Q

A fitter person

A

Has greater stroke volume

191
Q

What do gibberellins do?

A

Seed germination
Prevent leaf abscission

192
Q

One plant variable hard to control

A

Surface area of the leaves

193
Q

When using sensors

A

Ensure they are the same distance away

194
Q

Why are respirometer flushed/cleaned out?

A

To remove any microbial growth/reset it back to zero - they are washed with hot water

195
Q

Using colorimeter

A

Objective = less bias

196
Q

To reduce uncertainty

A

Use callipers/more precise equipment

197
Q

Practical error with water potential

A

Could be inadequate drying

198
Q

Repeats =

A

Reproducibility

199
Q

How do H+ ions affect cell membrane?

A

They affect ionic bonds of the membrane proteins

200
Q

What do free divers have

A

High co2 tolerance

201
Q

Why do we calculate a mean

A

To reduce uncertainty (anomaly) - reduces random error too

202
Q

Reproducibility

A

Similar results produced by different investigators with different equipment

203
Q

Not touching the TLC plate

A

No contamination of oil/bacteria from fingers

204
Q

Negative control

A

One thing you change to ensure that it is the variable you are changing that is causing the change - add buffer/boil yeast whatever

205
Q

Tidal volume

A

Normal breaths in and out

206
Q

Everything except - volume

A

Everything except residual volume is = vital capacity

207
Q

Ribcage cavity

A

THORAX

208
Q

In the leaf of a plant

A

The phloem is straight after the xylem - IGNORE CAMBIUM

209
Q

When asking for serial dilutions

A

Make sure to see if it’s ORIGINAL 1 mol dm^3

210
Q

Cardiac muscle

A

Is branched and interconnected

211
Q

Cardiac muscle

A

Is branched and Interconnected

212
Q

Where is ATP needed in muscle contraction

A

Break cross bridging and detaching myosin from actin - allows for muscle relaxation

213
Q

Phosphocreatine ATP

A

Runs out in a few seconds

214
Q

Glucocorticoid

A

Regulates carbohydrate metabolism

215
Q

Why are computers good

A

Continual data collection

216
Q

Intracellular reactions

A

Catalase breaking down hydrogen peroxide

217
Q

Extracellular reactions

A

Trypsin or amylase

218
Q

Membranes

A

Sites of chemical reactions

219
Q

Active transport explain

A

Molecule comes along binds
Causes hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and pi
Inorganic phosphate ion binds to carrier protein causes change of shape against concentration gradient
Released and then ADP + inorganic phosphate creates ATP again

220
Q

Neuromuscular junction

A

Between neurone and a muscle - they can only ever be excitatory while cholinergic synapses can be both excitatory or inhibitory

221
Q

Elastic fibres

A

Present in all parts of the gaseous exchange system

222
Q

Support in insects

A

Chitin around tracheae - impermeable to gas exchange
Like c shaped cartilage in trachea of humans

223
Q

Water in tracheoles

A

Dissolve and easily DIFFUSE ACROSS MEMBRANES

224
Q

A control set up is one

A

WITHOUT THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE - SHOWS THAT IT IS IV THAT US CAUSING CHANGE

225
Q

How do you improve reliability?

A

Large sample size

226
Q

Function of Hepatocytes

A

Produce bile - breakdown of haemoglobin in erythrocytes

227
Q

What happens in pelvis of kidneys

A

All the urine collects before travelling to bladder

228
Q

What does ADH do?

A

Increases PERMEABILITY to water

229
Q

Monoclonal antibodies

A

Coloured dyes

230
Q

Creatinine

A

Breakdown product of muscles - directly measures kidney failure

231
Q

Kidney failure can lead to

A

Electrolyte imbalance
Excess Urea

232
Q

Refractory period responsible for

A

Producing discrete impulses - each one separate
Ensures that they are unidirectional
Limits the number of impulse transmission

233
Q

Abscission caused by

A

Lack of auxin
Promotes ethene production
That is what causes enzymes breakdown of separation layer/abscission zone

234
Q

Antifreeze

A

ABA produces antifreeze to prevent the cytoplasm in cells from freezing

235
Q

Weed killer uses

A

Auxin
Also in seedless fruit x auxin

236
Q

At a neuromuscular junction

A

End point of action potential

237
Q

Photo system = light harvesting + reaction centre

A
238
Q

PSII

A

700 nm

239
Q

In respiration Krebs cycle

A

Per cycle 1 atp produced

240
Q

Ame length of dna bases

A

Must be a mutation - same number of bases

241
Q

TLC

A

Adsorption onto stationary phase
Soluble in mobile phase

242
Q

When does dehydrogenation occur?

A

Whenever NADH or FADH2 is produced is when dehydrogenation occurs - ATP produced

A-Level Biology (37 decks)

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