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A-Level Biology > 2.1.5 > Flashcards

2.1.5 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is compartmentalisation?

A

The formation of separate membrane bound areas within a cell ; separate the contents of cells from their external environment and the different organelles within cells from the cytosol

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2
Q

Why is compartmentalisation important?

A

Metabolism includes many different and often incompatible reactions so containing these reactions allows specific conditions required for cellular reactions (chemical gradients) to be maintained

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3
Q

What is the plasma membrane?

A

The phospholipid bilayer that separates the cell from its external environment

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4
Q

Structure of phospholipid bilayer?

A

Hydrophilic phosphate heads form both the inner and outer surface of a membrane - sandwiching the fatty acid tails of the phospholipids to form a hydrophobic core inside the membrane

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5
Q

Where are aqueous environments found and how do they matter?

A

Inside of cells are usually aqueous and bilayer are perfectly suited because the outer surfaces of the hydrophilic phosphate heads can interact with water

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6
Q

When were cell membranes first seen?

A

Invention of electron microscope lead to images be taken with higher magnification and resolution ; images in 1950s show cell membrane as 2 black parallel lines

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7
Q

When was the fluid mosaic model proposed?

A

1972 - Singer and Nicolson built upon earlier lipid bilayer model

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8
Q

Describe fluid mosaic model

A

Phospholipids are free to move within the layer relative to each other (they are fluid) giving the membrane flexibility and because the proteins that occupy various positions in membrane vary in shape size and position (same as mosaic)

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9
Q

Glycoprotein

A

Branched carbohydrate portion of a proteins which acts as a recognition site for chemicals (hormones)

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10
Q

Glycolipids

A

Acts as a recognition site for cholera toxins

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11
Q

Cholesterol

A

Adds stability and flexibility

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12
Q

What are extrinsic proteins?

A

Lay on surface

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13
Q

What are intrinsic proteins?

A

Span the whole phospholipid layer

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14
Q

Examples of intrinsic proteins

A

Integral proteins that are embedded through both layers of a membrane - hydrophobic r groups of their amino acids interact with hydrophobic core keeping them intact
CHANNEL AND CARRIER - BOTH TRANSPORT PROTEINS

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15
Q

Channel proteins

A

Provide a hydrophilic channel that allows passive movement of polar molecules and ions DOWN a concentration gradient ; held in place by hydrophobic interactions

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16
Q

Carrier proteins

A

Passive AND Active transport - down and against concentration gradient into cells => shape of protein changes

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17
Q

What are glycoproteins?

A

They are intrinsic proteins that are embedded in cell surface membrane with attached sugars chains ; they help in cell adhesion and act as receptors for chemical signals

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18
Q

Cell signalling

A

When chemical bonds to receptor it elicits a response - binding of neurotransmitters triggers impulse to next neurone for example
Drugs act by attaching to cell receptors (beta blockers)

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19
Q

What are glycolipids?

A

Similar to glycoproteins as they are lipids with attached sugar chains - cell markers/antigens and can be recognised by cell as self (of the organism) or non-self (belonging to another organism)

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20
Q

What are extrinsic proteins?

A

Peripheral proteins only on one side of bilayer - normally have hydrophilic R-groups on their outer surfaces and interact with polar heads of phospholipids ; EITHER LAYER AND CAN MOVE BETWEEN

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21
Q

Structure of cholesterol

A

Lipid with a hydrophilic and hydrophobic end

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22
Q

Role of cholesterol

A

Regulates fluidity of membrane by positioning itself between phospholipids with hydrophilic end interacting with PO43- heads and hydrophobic with tails - this adds stability to membrane without making them too rigid. Also prevents membranes becoming too solid by stopping the phospholipid molecules from grouping together and crystallising

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23
Q

Membranes as sites of chemical reactions

A

Proteins in membrane forming organelles have to be in particular positions for chemical reactions to take place

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24
Q

Requirements for the production of ATP in respiration

A

Electron carriers and enzyme ATP synthase have to be in the correct positions within the cristae (inner membrane of mitochondrion)

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25
Q

What factors affect membrane structure?

A

Temperature and presence of solvents

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26
Q

Affect of temperature on cell membrane?

A

Phospholipids will have more KE and will move more making membrane more fluid and making membrane lose its structure. If temperature increases too much then cell breaks down completely. Loss of structure increases permeability of the membrane making it easier for particles to cross it

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27
Q

Affect of temperature on proteins

A

Carrier and channel proteins will be denatured at higher temperatures so permeability of cell membrane affected as unable to carry molecules across

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28
Q

How does the cell membrane interact with water?

A

Non-polar hydrophobic core orientated away from water and hydrophobic heads interact with water - keeping bilayer intact

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29
Q

What do organic solvents do?

A

They are less polar than water (or non-polar) - so they dissolve membranes by disrupting cells

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30
Q

Why is alcohol used in antiseptic wipes?

A

Alcohols dissolve the membranes of bacteria in a wound, killing them and reducing infection

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31
Q

How does range of concentration affect cell membrane?

A

Very strong - destroy cells
Alcoholic drinks - cause damage but do not dissolve membrane
Non-polar alcohol MOLECULES - can pass through membrane and this disrupts membrane

32
Q

What happens when cell membranes are disrupted?

A

More fluid + more permeable - some cells need intact membranes to perform specific functions such as transmit neuronal impulses ; this occurs in the brain explaining changes seen in people’s behaviour after consuming alcoholic drinks

33
Q

LOOK AT BEETROOT PAG

A

LOOK AT BEETROOT PAG

34
Q

Active

A

Required metabolic energy

35
Q

How does passive movement use energy?

A

Utilises energy from the natural motion of particles rather than energy from another source

36
Q

Define diffusion

A

Net overall movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an areas of low concentration down a concentration gradient - it is passive and continues until equilibrium (no difference in concentrations) is reached

37
Q

Why does diffusion occur?

A

Particles in a gas or liquid have KE so movement is random and unequal distribution becomes an equal distribution - particles DO NOT stop moving, movement is just equal in both directions

38
Q

Why does diffusion slow down over longer distances?

A

Rate slowly down because more collisions take place slowing down movement

39
Q

Why are cells microscopic (diffusion)

A

Movement of particles within cell depends on diffusion and therefore short diffusion distance increases rate - supplying cells with particles needed and allowing reactions to take place quickly enough

40
Q

Factors affecting rate of diffusion

A

Temperature and concentration difference

41
Q

How does temperature affect diffusion?

A

Particles have higher KE move at higher speeds

42
Q

How does concentration gradient affect diffusion?

A

Greater the difference means larger overall net movement of particles from higher concentration to lower concentration

43
Q

What is simple diffusion?

A

Diffusion without a barrier or membrane

44
Q

LOOK AT AGAR JELLY DIFFUSION PRACTICAL

A

LOOK AT AGAR JELLY DIFFUSION PRACTICAL

45
Q

Diffusion across membranes

A

Can only occur if membrane is permeable ; non-polar molecules like O2 can diffuse freely DOWN a concentration gradient

46
Q

Why are membranes described as partially permeable?

A

Hydrophobic core repels substances with positive/negative charge so they cannot pass through - polar molecules such as H2O can diffuse through SLOWLY because they are SMALL so they can pass through more easily than larger ones (partially)

47
Q

Rate at which substances diffuse across membrane

A

Surface area - larger SA = higher rate of diffusion (more particles)
Thickness - thinner = higher rate because shorter distance

48
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Membranes contain channel proteins through which polar molecules/ions can pass - diffusion across a membrane through protein channels is called facilitated diffusion.

49
Q

Selectively permeable

A

Membranes with protein channels that are specific to one molecule or ion (partially permeable is down to size)

50
Q

Describe facilitated diffusion

A

Can involve carrier proteins which change shape when a specific molecule binds - movement is DOWN a concentration gradient and does not require external energy

51
Q

What is rate of facilitated diffusion affected by?

A

Thickness, SA, Temperature, Concentration gradient AND NUMBER OF CHANNEL PROTEINS - more channel proteins = higher rate of diffusion

52
Q

LOOK AT DIALYSIS EXPERIMENT

A

LOOK AT DIALYSIS EXPERIMENT

53
Q

Purpose of active transport

A

Maintain this concentration gradient for diffusion to take place - active transport must occur faster than rate of diffusion and this requires external metabolic ENERGY => maintains concentration gradient

54
Q

Define active transport

A

Movement of particles into our out of a cell from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration - requires energy (ATP) and carrier proteins ; particles are moved against concentration gradient

55
Q

Carrier proteins act as…

A

Pumps (in Active Transport)

56
Q

General process of active transport (outside to inside)

A

1) Molecule binds to receptors in the channel or carrier protein on outside
2) Triggers ATP binding to cell on inside and hydrolysing to ADP
3) Binding of phosphate molecule to carrier protein causes change of shape
4) Molecule is released to inside of cell
5) Phosphate released and recombined to ADP to form ATP
6) Carrier protein returns to original shape

57
Q

Is active transport selective?

A

SPECIFIC SUBSTANCES ARE TRANSPORTED

58
Q

What is bulk transport?

A

Another form of active transport for larger molecules such as enzymes/hormones that cannot move through carrier proteins so they are moved through bulk transport

59
Q

Endocytosis

A

Bulk transport INTO cells - phagocytosis (solids) pinocytosis (liquids) - cell surface INVAGINATES (BENDS INWARDS) when it comes into contact with molecule and membrane ENFOLDS until membrane fuses forming a vesicles => PINCHES OFF AND MOVES INTO CYTOPLASM to transfer material for further processing within the cell… vesicle donating bacteria are moved towards lysosomes where bacteria are digested by enzymes

60
Q

Exocytosis

A

OUT OF CELL - vesicles (formed by Golgi - could be secretory ) move towards and fuse with cell membrane releasing them to outside

61
Q

How is energy required for bulk transport?

A

Energy in the form of ATP is required for movement of vesicles along the cytoskeleton - changing shape of cells to engulf materials and the fusion of cell membranes as vesicles form or as they meet the cell surface membrane

62
Q

Define osmosis

A

It is the diffusion of water across a partially permeable membrane from an area of high water potential to an area of low water potential - it is passive and down a concentration gradient

63
Q

Water potential

A

Pressure exerted by water molecules as they collide with a membrane or container - measured in units of pressure (Pa) and symbol for water is psi

64
Q

Water potential values

A

Pure water - 0kPa
Highest possible value for water potential - all solutions have negative values and more solute/concentrated = more negative water potential

65
Q

What happens when there are different concentrations?

A

Different water potentials separate by partially permeable me brand means water molecules can move between BUT SOLUTES CANNOT - net movement of water from less concentrated to more concentrated UNTIL water potential is equal on both sides (equilibrium)

66
Q

What does osmosis cause?

A

Diffusion of water into solution increases volume of solution - if in closed system (cell) this results in increased pressure called HYDROSTATIC pressure - same units as water potential (kPa) => cellular level this is large and damaging

67
Q

Hypertonic

A

Low water potential

68
Q

Hypotonic

A

High water potential

69
Q

Isotonic

A

Same water potential

70
Q

If animal cell placed in a hypotonic…

A

Water moves in - increased hydrostatic pressure and thin cell surface membranes means they cannot stretch much and withstand pressure - causing cell to burst (cytolysis)

71
Q

If animal cell placed in hypertonic solution…

A

Lose water by osmosis down water potential gradient and this will cause a reduction in the volume of the cell and cause cremation

72
Q

How to prevent cytolysis or cremation?

A

Control mechanism - continuously surrounded by squeaks solutions with an equal water potential (BLOOD PLASMA)

73
Q

Are plant cells able to control the water potential around them?

A

No - roots surrounded by almost pure water

74
Q

What happens when water enters plant cells?

A

Increased hydrostatic pressure pushes against strong cellulose walls - this pressure is called TURGOR ; resists entry of further water and is said to be turgid

75
Q

What happens when plant cells are placed in a hypertonic solution?

A

Water is lost therefore reduction in volume of cytoplasm which pulls away membrane from cell wall - has been PLASMOLYSED

A-Level Biology (37 decks)

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