Exam 3 Review Flashcards
Gluconeogenesis
the conversion of protein or fat molecules into glucose, forming a new glucose molecule
Glycogenolysis
When does it occur and what is it stimulated by?
- the conversion of glycogen back to glucose
- process occurs between meals
- stimulated by glucagon and epinephrine
Glycogenesis
Where does it occur?
- the conversion of glucose to glycogen for storage in the liver and skeletal muscle
- occurs in the liver and skeletal muscle
What is the function of neuropeptide Y?
increases food intake while increasing rate and proportion of nutrients stored as fat
What are the 6 classes of nutrients?
- carbohydrates
- proteins
- fats
- vitamins
- minerals
- water
What is the function of carbohydrates?
- provides energy (fiber, starches, and sugars)
What is the function of proteins? (4)
- build and repair body’s tissues
- make hormones and enzymes
- maintain proper pH and fluid balance
- can also be used as an energy source
What is the function of fats? (3)
- give the body energy and support cell growth
- protect organs and keep body warm
- help body absorb some nutrients and produce important hormones
What is the function of vitamins? (4)
- help fight infection
- wound healing
- make bones strong
- regulate hormones
What is the function of minerals? (4)
- building material for bones
- influence muscle and nerve function
- regulate body’s water balance
- making enzymes and hormones
What is the function of water? (3)
- lubricant
- regulate body temperature
- helps move food and waste products
What are the fat-soluble vitamins?
vitamins A, D, E, K
What are the water-soluble vitamins?
Vitam C and B complexes (thiamine, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, biotin, folate, cobalamin)
Redox Reaction (Oxidation Reduction)
any chemical reaction in which the oxidation number of a molecule, atom, or ion changes by gaining or losing an electron
What is the function of antioxidant vitamins?
- neutralize the effects (stabilizing) of free radicals (substances that damage the body’s cells)
- prevent or reduce the damage caused by oxidation
What do you call the fluid that enters the proximal convoluted tubule?
(glomerular) filtrate
What is the formation of a new glucose molecule?
gluconeogenesis
What is waste product normally excreted by the kidneys?
- urea, in the urine (1st)
- creatine
What is the main function of bile?
aids in digestion of fats via emulsification
Which structure of the nephron reabsorbs the most substances?
- proximal convoluted tubule
- only good stuff enters into the blood
The addition of water to break down large molecules is called
hydrolysis
Glycolysis is an example of anabolism or catabolism?
catabolism (breaking down)
The enzymatic digestion of large molecules into their basic building blocks is called
chemical digestion/catabolism
Carbohydrate is stored in the body in the form of:
glycogen
In the stomach, what does hydrochloric acid (HCL) do to protein?
- denatures protein (breaking of weak bonds in the tertiary structure; ex: hydrogen)
- converts pepsinogen into pepsin to break the peptide bonds between amino acids
What is a villus?
- finger-like projections supplied with blood vessels that help absorption of nutrients by increasing surface area
- found in small intestine
Which region of the stomach receives food from the esophagus?
cardia
Which of the tracts is the second section of the small intestine?
jejunum
Know the Salivary Glands
- parotid (in front of and below each ear)
- submandibular (below the jaw)
- sublingual (under the tongue)
Which digestive aid, produced by the stomach, begins digestion by denaturing proteins?
hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Chemical reactions that break down complex organic molecules into simpler ones are called
catabolic reactions
What is oxidation reaction?
- the addition of oxygen to the substance or the removal of hydrogen from the substance
- electrons are lost and energy content is released
This process is the synthesis of triglycerides
lipogenesis (addition of three fatty acids to a glycerol backbone)
What are chemical reactions that combine simple molecules and monomers to form complex structures?
anabolism
Bile is produced by which organ and stored where?
- produced by the liver
- stored in the gallbladder
What is the substrate of salivary amylase?
starch
The primary functional unit of the kidney
nephron
The hormone responsible for reabsorption of water in the kidney
- ADH (antidiuretic hormone) (1st)
- aldosterone
In each nephron of the kidney, the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule are called what?
renal corpuscle
What is the movement of substances from the blood into the proximal tubule?
secretion
What is the test to measure kidney function?
Blood screening tests:
- blood urea nitrogen (BUN); measures the level of nitrogen in blood that is part of urea (1st)
- measurement of plasma creatinine
Increased secretion of hydrogen ions would result in what of the blood?
decrease in blood pH
Which tubule transports urine from the kidney to the bladder?
ureters
What structure of the stomach allows for greater distension for food storage?
rugae (gastric folds of inner wall)
How many stages of deglutition are there?
deglutition = swallowing
3 phases:
- oropharyngeal (voluntary)
- pharyngeal
- esophageal
All blood leaving the small intestinal tract travels first to the:
liver
How long can food stay in the fundus before being mixed with gastric juices?
1 hour
The movement of substances out of the glomerulus and into Bowman’s capsule is referred to as what?
filtration
The major blood vessels transporting blood to the kidneys
renal arteries
This is the structure of the nephron that filters blood
glomerulus (glomerular capsule)
The ascending loop of Henle is impermeable to:
water
An analysis of the physical, chemical and microscopic properties of urine is called
urinalysis
Water accounts for what percentage of the total volume of urine?
95%
The pH of gastric juice is about?
1.5 to 3.5
Glycolysis takes place in:
cytosol
What is the largest producer of energy during cellular respiration?
ETC (Electron Transport Chain) in the inner mitochondrial membrane
Which digestive accessory organ produces a fluid that functions to emulsify dietary fat droplets?
liver
Which accessory organ stores bile?
gallbladder
What is the substrate of pepsin?
substrate = (the material on which an enzyme acts)
- protein
What is reduction reaction?
the oxidation number of an atom becomes larger due to the gain of electrons and energy
Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and Electron Transport System (ETS) are all involved in what type of reaction?
Carbohydrate Metabolism / Cellular Respiration / Catabolism
All absorbed nutrients travel to which organ first, with the exception of lipids?
small intestine
The GI tract muscles propels materials (bolus and chyme) from one portion to another through a process called
peristalsis
The enzyme that digests carbohydrates in the oral cavity is called what?
salivary amylase
Transport vehicles for lipids (lipid carriers) in the blood are called what?
lipoproteins
This is the smooth dense irregular connective tissue that is continuous with the outer coat of the ureter
renal capsule
What are lipoproteins?
What are the classes (types)?
- protein molecules that transport fat in the bloodstream
- High Density Lipoprotein (HDL): more protein than lipid (good cholesterol)
- Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL): more lipid than protein (bad cholesterol)
- Very-Low Density Lipoprotein (VLDL)
- chylomicron
Know the process of Cellular Respiration (AKA Carbohydrate Metabolism)
Ingestion
Physical introduction of food into the oral cavity
What’s another name for salivary amylase?
ptylin
How are the pancreas and small intestine able to handle the acidic contents from the stomach?
pancreas produces HCO3- : bicarbonate ion that serves as buffer to neutralize acidic content
What does the presence of food in the duodenum stimulate?
production of CCK (cholecystokinin) to contract gall bladder to release bile and secrete hormones
GERD
- Gastro-Esophageal Reflex Disease
- cardiac sphincter doesn’t close properly and acidic chyme goes back into esophagus, irritating the lining
Parietal Cells
produce HCl and intrinsic factors that enhance the production of vitamin B12
Chief Cells
- AKA zymogenic or peptic
- produces pepsinogen
What type of cells make up the entire digestive tract?
simple columnar
Where is the upper esophageal sphincter located?
btwn laryngopharynx and esophagus
Where is the lower esophageal sphincter located?
btwn esophagus and cardia region of stomach
Where is the pyloric sphincter located?
btwn pylorus region of stomach and duodenum
Where is the anal sphincter located?
btwn rectum and outside
What is the valve of the digestive system and where is it located?
- ileocecal valve
- located bwtn ilium (last segment of small intestine) and cecum (first segment of colon/large intestine)
What is a chylomicron?
- large lipoprotein consisting of glycerol and fatty acids merged together by a protein
- too large to enter blood, but can enter lacteal (special lymphatic vessel)
Can lipids be absorbed by blood vessels?
No, they are too big and will clog liver, have to be cleaned by lacteal first
What are the major functions of the kidney?
filter blood and produce urine
What is the “good” filtrated stuff?
- glucose
- electrolytes
What is the “bad” filtrated stuff?
urea
What is the glomerulus?
fenestrated (mid-sized openings) capillary that FILTERS
What are the filtration slits on the glomerulus?
podocytes (finger-like projections)
What is the function of the Bowman’s Capsule?
secretion
What are the blood vessels in the kidneys?
- peritubular arteriole
- vasa recta
How do the blood vessels of the kidneys work?
- only good stuff enters blood from the proximal convoluted tubule
- excessive good stuff is secreted from the blood back into the collecting tubule
