exam 3: motivation and work

Question 1

motivation

Answer 1

the energization and direction of behavior

Question 2

energization and direction (motivation)

Answer 2

• energization: motivation is an inner state (need, desire) that gives force to behavior
• direction: motivation directs behaviors toward valued goals and outcomes

Question 3

general theories of motivation (4)

Answer 3

instinct theory, drive theory, arousal theory, incentive theory

Question 4

instinct theory (early view, instincts, founder, problems (3))

Answer 4

• view: human behavior is biologically rooted in instincts
• instincts: fixed patterns of behavior that are unlearned, universal (within a species), and released by specific conditions
• founder: William McDougall (1908) (argued that a whole range of human behavior is instinctually based; believed that common and consistent behaviors in the human species should be labeled as instincts)
• problems: generated a large list of instincts; was based on tautological/circular reasoning (i.e. people aggressive because of instinct to aggress; we know because we see lots of aggression); provided a description of human behavior but failed to provide an explanation of human behavior

Question 5

drive theory (focus, founder, how drives account for motivation, limitation)

Answer 5

• focus: originally focused on four basic physiological drives (hunger, thirst, sex, and the avoidance of pain)
• founder: Clark Hull (1943) (originally focused on four basic physiological drives)
• drives: arise in the organism and operate on a cyclical basis; create a state of bodily tension; return the organism to a more balanced, less-tense state when the drive is reduced, so the behavior gets reinforced
• limitation: there is no account of behaviors that increase, rather than reduce, tension

Question 6

arousal theory (Eysenck)

Answer 6

begins with the assumption that humans are motivated to achieve and maintain a state of optimal arousal (provides an account of why organisms seek to increase bodily tension); easy tasks are boring, while difficult tasks are anxiety-provoking

Question 7

incentive theory (Hull) (definition, notion it contrasts, incentive)

Answer 7

• definition: acknowledges the importance of cognition in human motivation (unlike the other theories); humans are oftentimes pulled by external goals or incentives
• contrast: stands in contrast to the notion that our behaviors are always pushed by internal drives that act on us
• incentive: any stimulus (factor in the environment) that is associated with some positive or some negative outcome

Question 8

hierarchy of human needs (founder and hierarchy from bottom to top (6))

Answer 8

• founder: Abraham Maslow
• physiological needs: the basic needs of an organism for survival (food, water, oxygen, sleep, sex)
• safety needs: steady work, financial security, home stability, predictable environment
• social needs: needs that we experience in relation to others (affiliation and affection, belongingness, love, family ties, group membership)
• esteem needs: needs that relate to our experience of self-worth (self-esteem) (social status, respect, recognition, power, achievement); we tend to feel inferior and unimportant when these are not met
• self-actualization: the need to live up to and to realize our fullest potential
• self-transcendence: the need to find meaning and identity beyond the self

Question 9

early view of hunger (founders, findings, problems (2))

Answer 9

• early view: the stomach is responsible for hunger
• founders: Cannon & Washburn (1912)
• findings: stomach contractions preceded and seemed to cause the psychological feelings of hunger
• problems: some people who have had their stomach surgically removed still feel hungry; some patients with amnesia eat meal after meal even though their stomachs are full because they cannot remember the last meal they ate

Question 10

the brain and hormones (what is important in the regulation of hunger)

Answer 10

hypothalamus

Question 11

psychological influences on hunger (3)

Answer 11

• taste preferences: humans tend to prefer sweet and salty tastes; these taste preferences are genetically derived and universal
• external cues: different aspects of the environment can cue our hunger (i.e. hotdog at a baseball game)
• social cues: people tend to eat more when in the company of others

Question 12

eating disorders (anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge-eating disorder)

Answer 12

• anorexia nervosa: a condition that is marked by extreme fear of gaining weight; the individual ignores hunger pains and limits food consumption (may become emaciated); risk of starving to death
• bulimia nervosa: marked by cycles of extreme binge eating followed by self-induced vomiting, use of laxatives, or excessive exercise
• binge-eating disorder: a condition marked by significant binge eating followed by remorse (regret, guilt, shame)

Question 13

potential causes of eating disorders (3)

Answer 13

social expectations, social influences (nurture); cultures that value slim appearances; distorted body images (how they view their body can be very discrepant from their ideal body type)

Question 14

sexual response cycle (founders and steps (4))

Answer 14

• founders: Masters and Johnson (recorded the physiological responses of volunteers who either masturbated or had intercourse in a lab)
• excitement: an initial stage during which the genitals become engorged with blood
• plateau: excitement peaks and orgasms seems immanent, breathing becomes more rapid, pulse increases, blood pressure skyrockets
• orgasm: rhythmic genital contractions that give rise to feelings of sexual release
• resolution: the body returns to its normal, pre-aroused state; accompanied by the refractory period

Question 15

refractory period

Answer 15

a period of time during which a man cannot achieve orgasm that may last from a few minutes to a day or more; for women, that period is shorter

Question 16

hormones and sexual behavior (functions (2), types of hormones (2), what happens during/around ovulation (4))

Answer 16

• functions: direct the development of male and female sex characteristics; activate sexual behavior
• estrogen: the hormone that primarily influences female sexual behavior
• ovulation: the amount of estrogen peaks; sex is 24% more frequent; women fantasize more about sex; women wear more sexually attractive clothing
• testosterone: the hormone that primarily influences male sexual behavior; normal influences in men have little effect on the sex drive

Question 17

psychological (Aristotle, Freud, social learning theory) vs biological (2) theories about the origins of homosexuality

Answer 17

• Aristotle: argued that homosexuality is inborn but strengthened by habit (false)
• Freud (and other psychoanalysts): assumed that homosexuality stems from family dynamics and the child’s overattachment to the same sex parent (false)
• social learning theory: homosexuality is reinforced by same-sex peers during childhood (false)
• biological theories: (1) In autopsying homosexual men, heterosexual men, and heterosexual women, LeVay examined a tiny nucleus in the hypothalamus. In homosexual men (and heterosexual women), that tiny nucleus in the hypothalamus was half the size as it was in heterosexual men. LeVay found that differences in neural anatomy correlate with sexual orientation. (2) Gay men, their twins, and their adoptive brothers were studied. Experimenters found that in 52% of gay men who had identical twins, the identical twin was also gay. Among fraternal twins, that number dropped to around 22%. Among adoptive brothers, that number dropped further to 11%.

Question 18

belongingness movites benefit

Answer 18

Aids in survival: In evolutionary history, adults who formed attachments were more likely to reproduce and co-nurture their offspring to maturity. Also, cooperation was a benefit to hunters and gatherers who oftentimes relied on each other for survival. In contemporary society, married people are less at-risk for depression, suicide, and early death.

Question 19

belongingness motives (3)

Answer 19

need to belong, need for affiliation, need for intimacy

Question 20

need to belong (founders, definition)

Answer 20

• founders: Baumeister and Leary (1995)
• definition: we experience joy with the formation of new attachments; when those attachments are threatened or terminated, we experience loneliness, grief, and anxiety; these experiences are universal

Question 21

need for affiliation (definition, individual differences, benefits)

Answer 21

• definition: an individual difference in the desire to be in the company of others
• individual differences: more socially active and prefer to be in contact with others
• benefits: more contact, stimulation, information, social support from others

Question 22

need for intimacy (definition, individual differences, benefits)

Answer 22

• definition: an individual difference in the desire to be in a close intimate relationship with others
• individual differences: more warm, sincere, and loving
• benefits: look at others more, smile and laugh more, confide more in friends, tend to be happier and healthier

Question 23

esteem motives (2)

Answer 23

need for achievement, need for power

Question 24

need for achievement (founder, definition, individual differences)

Answer 24

• founder: David McClelland (1953)
• definition: a strong desire to accomplish difficult tasks, outperform others, and excel
• individual differences: tend to work harder; are more persistent, innovative, and future-oriented; crave success more than they fear failure; when they succeed, they credit their success to their own abilities rather than external factors; when they fail, they credit their failure to external failures

Question 25

need for power (founder, definition, individual differences)

Answer 25

• founder: David Winter (1973)
• definition: a strong desire to acquire prestige and influence over others
• individual differences: more likely to strive for positions of authority

Question 26

perspectives about work (founder, list (3))

Answer 26

• founder: Amy Wrzesniewski
• perspectives: job, career, calling

Question 27

perspectives about work (job, career, calling)

Answer 27

• job: an unfulfilling but necessary way to make money
• career: an opportunity to advance from one position to a better one
• calling: a fulfilling and socially useful activity (those who view work as a calling are more likely to be satisfied with their work and personal lives)

Question 28

flow theory (founder, definition, conclusion, benefits)

Answer 28

• founder: Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (believed that the quality of life increases when people are personally engaged)
• definition: states of flow exist between the anxiety of being overwhelmed and stressed and the apathy of being underwhelmed and bored
• conclusion: when in states of flow, there is an experience of tense concentration, immersion, and a loss of awareness of time
• benefits: higher levels of self-esteem, competence, and well-being