exam 1 Flashcards
psychology
the scientific study of behavior and the mind
types of psychologists (3)
empirical: employ systematic, objective methods of observation (lab)
theoretical: develop sets of notions about how things work based on empirical data (office)
applied: bring basic research out of the lab into the real world in order to solve important social problems
behavior
any activity that can be observed, recorded, or measured
Socrates
wrote about pleasure, pain perception, five senses, imagination, desire, and other aspects
Plato and Aristotle
theorized about learning and memory, motivation and emotion, perception and personality (note: hedonic is immediate pleasures and eudemonic is virtue)
Hippocrates
argued that the human brain is the interpreter of consciousness; the first to differentiate different psychological disorders
Galen
argued that every person is born with one of four personality types
René Descartes
argued for dualism
dualism (4)
the body, but not the mind, can be studied scientifically; the body is a physical structure; the mind is a spiritual entity; the body and the mind interact only through a tiny structure in the brain called the pineal gland
Thomas Hobbes
argued for monism
monism (3)
both the body and the mind can be studied scientifically; the entire human experience, including conscious thoughts and feelings, are physical processes that emanate from the brain; if nothing the body and the mind are physical in nature, then we can also study psychological experiences
Hermann von Helmholtz
a reductionist that studied sensory receptors (in the eye and ear), the speed of neural impulses, color vision, and our perception of space; majorly influenced Sigmund Freud
reductionism
all things ought to be reduced to their simplest component parts
Emil Kraepelin
linked mental disorders to physical illnesses (not the stuff of demons); developed the first comprehensive system for classifying mental disorders
Jean Charcot
cured nervous disorders with hypnosis; known as the Napoleon of neurosis
Wilhelm Wundt
established the first laboratory dedicated to the scientific study of the mind; conscious processing takes longer than sensory awareness; there are two basic elements of the mind: sensations and feelings
G. Stanley Hall
James McKeen Cattell
Hugo Münsterberg
Edward L. Thorndike
Ivan Pavlov
John B. Watson
B.F. Skinner
Abraham Maslow
Carl Rogers
G. Stanley Hall: founded the American Psychological Association
James McKeen Cattell: first psychologist to study individual differences in personality
Hugo Münsterberg: first psychologist to apply psychology to industry and the law
Edward L. Thorndike: studied animal intelligence
Ivan Pavlov: studied classical conditioning in dogs
John B. Watson: took Pavlov’s ideas and applied them to humans; learned that you can classically condition humans to feel things
B.F. Skinner: worked with rewards and discouragements to shape behavior
Abraham Maslow: humanistic psychologist; made the hierarchy of needs
Carl Rogers: founded person-centered therapy
structuralism vs functionalism
structuralism: early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
functionalism: early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function (how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish)
William James
founder of all things psychological; made the case that the processes of thinking and feeling developed over evolutionary history because they are adaptive
psychoanalysis
Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts
Sigmund Freud
argued that much human behavior is driven by unconscious psychic forces; worked with patients who suffered physical ailments with no visible basis
behaviorism (2)
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes (most research psychologists today agree with 1 but not with 2)
humanistic psychology
an approach to understanding human nature that emphasizes human ability, growth, potential, and free will
the cognitive revolution
psychologists began to recognize that behavior is more than just the environmental stimulus causing a behavioral response
cognition
the mental processes that intervene between a stimulus and a response
fact vs theory
fact: something that is known to be true
theory: an organized set of principles that describes, predicts, and explains a phenomenon
law of parsimony
when two or more theories provide equally adequate accounts of some phenomenon, the simpler theory is always preferred
critical thinking
having creative ideas, testing those ideas, and scrutinizing results (does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions)
the scientific attitude (3)
curiosity: a passion to explore and understand
skepticism: some ideas will not hold up under scientific scrutiny
humility: no method is perfect or failproof
the scientific method (6)
postulate a theory, specify the hypothesis, design a study, collect data, test the hypothesis, publish or specify a new hypothesis
hypothesis
a specific, testable prediction about the relations between two or more variables
laboratory research vs field research
laboratory research: involves careful regulation and observation, but may elicit atypical behavior from research participants
field research: can understand behavior in real-world settings, but lose control and precision in measurement
psychological measurements (3)
self-report measurements, behavioral observations, archival records
levels of psychological explanation (3)
description, correlation, causation
descriptive research (3)
case studies: conducted in the hope that an in-depth look at one individual will reveal something important about people in general
surveys: describe a population by collecting data from many individuals
naturalistic observations: observing behavior as it occurs in the real world without manipulating the environment
correlation
a statistical measure of the extent to which two variables are associated (coefficients range from -1 to +1)
experiment
a type of research in which an investigator manipulates some variable(s), keeps others constant, and measures the effect of the manipulated variable on randomly assigned participants; purpose is to focus on the casual hypothesis
independent vs dependent variable
independent variable: the variable that the experimenter manipulates (the proposed cause of another variable)
dependent variable: the variable that is being measured (the proposed effect of another variable)
experimental group vs control group
experimental group: the group that receives the treatment
control group: the group that receives no treatment
causality
aims to study the causes of psychological phenomena
factors that affect psychological experience (6)
biology, plasticity, cognition, development, motivation, society
genetics
our inherited biological predispositions that affect our phenotype; establish possibilities for us but set limits on our behavior
nervous system
endocrine system
immune system
nervous system: a communication network that connects the brain and the spinal cord to all sensory organs, muscles, and glands
endocrine system: a collection of glands that regulates growth, sexual development and reproduction, metabolism, mood, and certain aspects of behavior; influences the body by secreting hormones
immune system: charged with the task of keeping us healthy; affects our physical health
Phineas Gage
railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function
Julia
Henry Molaison
Julia: had epilepsy and was prone to outbursts and fits of rage; had parts of her brain stimulated by a neurosurgeon; taught us that particular behaviors emerge from specific areas of the brain
Henry Molaison: patient who lost his long-term memory after surgery for epilepsy where his hippocampus was removed
Genie
raised in isolation and abuse; her critical period had passed by the time she was rescued; never reached her language potential; taught us that normal brain development requires adequate environmental supports; even in the absence of these supports, the brain is changeable
plasticity
a capacity to change as a result of usage, practice, and/or experience
“amusement park” for rats
“enriched” rats lived with other rats in a cage with ladders, platforms boxes, toys, while non-enriched rats: lived in solitary confinement; the finding was that[, in these rats and in humans,] different parts of the brain, although specialized in their function, can assume responsibility if the environment calls for it
traditional vs competing view on brain hemispheres
traditional: the right and left hemispheres of the brain are mirror images of each other (outdated)
competing: the two hemispheres are specialized for different functions
hemispheric crossover
corpus callosum
the case of n.g. findings
hemispheric crossover: when one hemisphere of the brain receives sensory input from and sends motor commands to the other side of the body
corpus callosum: allows for the seamless transfer back and forth between the hemispheres of the brain
n.g.: with an intact corpus callosum, stimuli that reach both hemispheres are blended to form a unified experience
consciousness
an awareness of ourselves and our environment
evolutionary psychology
argues that psychological experiences have evolved because they confer some adaptive advantage
cognitive neuroscience
examines how brain activity is linked to our mental processes
localized vs wholistic approach to consciousness
localized view: specific neural activity is responsible for a stream of consciousness
wholistic view: our stream of consciousness arises from synchronized activity of the whole brain
dual processing
conscious information processing
unconscious information processing
dual processing: we seem to have two minds, each supported by its own neural equipment
conscious information processing: responsible for information processing that is deliberate and relatively slow; enables us to exert voluntary control and to communicate our mental states to others
unconscious information processing: an automatic and relatively fast form of information processing; allows us to process information outside of awareness
selective attention (cocktail party effect) vs selective inattention (inattentional and change blindness)
selective attention: when we focus our conscious awareness on only a limited amount of all of our experience
cocktail party effect: our ability to attend to only one voice among many
selective inattention: a consequence of our inability to attend to all aspects of our conscious experience; many stimuli go by unnoticed
inattentional blindness: our failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
change blindness:our failing to notice changes in the environment
circadian rhythm
a 24-hour cycle of waking and sleeping that our bodies synchronize to
sleep stages (5)
stage 1: hypnagogic sensations (fantastic images that resemble hallucinations)
stage 2: sleep spindles (bursts of rapid, rhythmic brainwave activity)
stage 3: transitional stage
stage 4: large, slow delta waves (on EEG output)
REM: heart rate rises, breathing becomes more rapid and irregular, eyes dart back and forth, muscles are extremely relaxed, essentially paralyzed
costs of sleep loss (7)
loss on psychological well-being; depressed immune function; impaired memory, concentration, creativity, and communication; more irritable; slowed performance; more prone to accidents; obesity and hypertension
why we sleep (5)
protective role in evolutionary history; helps restore brain tissue; restore and rebuild memories (recall); facilitate creative thinking; facilitate the growth process (pituitary gland active during sleep)
dreams
manifest content
latent content
dreamwork
dream interpretation
dreams: hallucinations of the sleeping mind
manifest content: the remembered content of dreams
latent content: the true meaning of the dream
dreamwork: the process through which latent content gets transformed into manifest content so sleep is not disturbed
dream interpretation: the process through which the manifest content is analyzed and interpreted by the skilled listener (psychoanalyst)
the function of dreams (5)
wish fulfillment, information processing, brain stimulation, activation-synthesis theory (our attempt to make sense of the neural activity that spreads from the brainstem through the brain to the cerebral cortex during sleep), cognitive development
types of processing (2)
bottom-up processing: an analysis of sensory information that begins with the sensory receptors and proceeds to the brain for an integration of experience
top-down processing: an analysis of sensory information that is guided by our higher-level mental processes (capacities) including our previous experience and expectations
absolute threshold
signal detection theory
difference threshold
absolute threshold: the minimum stimulation that is necessary to detect sensory information 50% of the time
signal detection theory: assumes that there is no single absolute threshold that applies uniformly across people or that applies uniformly for any one person across time
difference threshold: the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection of that difference 50% of the time
factors that affect our ability to detect weak stimuli that have low absolute thresholds (5)
personality, experience, expectations, motivation, fatigue
sensory adaptation
the process whereby we experience diminished sensitivity to a stimulus as a consequence of constant stimulation
wavelength
intensity
purity
wavelength: the distance from one wave peak to the next; influences the light’s hue (color)
intensity: the amount of energy in the light waves; affects the light’s brightness
purity: the number of wavelengths that make up the light; affects the color’s saturation (richness)
light’s process of transduction (2)
(1) light enters through the cornea and then passes through the pupil
(2) the lens focuses incoming light rays into an image on the retina
rods vs cones
rods: detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision
cones: detect fine detail and produce color vision
feature detection
parallel processing
feature detection: facial recognition; recognition of specific gazes, head angles, body postures, or body movements
parallel processing: color, motion, form, and depth
trichromatic theory vs opponent-process theory
trichromatic theory: assumes that the retina contains three different color receptors that are sensitive to red, green, and blue (when combinations of these different receptors are stimulated, we see different colors)
opponent-process theory: there are three different types of visual receptors, where each is sensitive to a pair of opponent colors: red vs. green, blue vs. yellow, and variations in brightness ranging from white to black (Christmas, U of R, B&W)
when our ears receive sensory input, it is in the form of
changes in air pressure
amplitude
wavelength
purity
amplitude: the strength of a sound wave that influences the sound’s loudness
wavelength: the length of the sound waves that influence the sound’s pitch
purity: influences the sound’s tonal quality (how right/brilliant that sound sounds)
sound’s process of transduction (4)
(1) the outer ear channels sound waves through the auditory canal to the eardrum
(2) the middle ear then transmits the vibrations of the eardrum to the cochlea (inner ear), which also vibrates
(3) the tiny hair cells on the cochlea bend when they vibrate which triggers neural impulses to adjacent neurons
(4) those nerve cells come together to form the auditory nerve, which sends its information to the auditory cortex for processing
place theory vs frequency theory
place theory: assumes that we hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity on different areas of the cochlear membrane (problem: the neural signals from low-pitched sounds are not neatly localized)
frequency theory: assumes that we hear different pitches because different sounds produce different rates of nerve impulses that travel up the auditory nerve (problem: neurons have an upper limit for how quickly they can fire: 1000 waves per second)
stereophonic hearing (three-dimensional hearing) advantages (2)
sounds coming from one direction are received more intensely by one ear than the other; sounds that come from one direction are received sooner by one ear than the other
the Gestalt approach
when people are given a cluster of sensations, they tend to organize those sensations into a meaningful whole (“the whole is greater than the sum of its parts”)
grouping principles (5)
proximity: we group nearby lines together
similarity: we group similar figures together
continuity: we perceive smooth and continuous patterns rather than discontinuous patterns
connectedness: when stimuli are uniform and linked, we tend to perceive them as a single unit
closure: we fill in the gaps of our visual scene to create a complex, whole object
depth perception
enables us to estimate the distance of objects from us; an innate ability but amplified through experience (see: visual cliff experiment)
learning and its mechanisms (2)
learning: relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience; adaptive and promotes survival
experience: what we do in life
laws of learning: evidence of learning is seen through the formation of new stimulus-response bonds, which govern our behavior
mechanisms by which learning occurs (4)
habituation: the tendency to become familiar with a stimulus as a result of repeated exposure to the stimulus; the simplest form of learning; the effect of the stimulus is weakened because of repeated exposure
classical conditioning: the process of learning associations between two stimuli that occur in sequence; a basic form of learning by which all organisms adapt to their environment
operant conditioning: the process of learning associations between our behavior and its consequence; rewards, punishments, and threats are used to control and modify behavior
observational learning: the process of learning new behaviors by observing others
psychic secretions
salivatory responses that occur through psychological mechanisms
principles of classical conditioning
unconditioned response (UR): an unlearned, naturally occurring response to a stimulus
unconditioned stimulus (US): a stimulus that naturally and automatically evokes the unconditioned response
conditioned response (CR): a learned response to a previously neutral but now conditioned stimulus
conditioned stimulus (CS): a stimulus, that used to be neutral, that comes to trigger a conditioned response after having been repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus
acquisition
extinction
generalization
discrimination
acquisition: an initial stage of learning when the link is made between the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus; the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and assumes properties of the unconditioned stimulus
extinction: the conditioned response is diminished if the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus
generalization: the tendency for similar stimuli to elicit a conditioned response
discrimination: the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not elicit the conditioned response
types of conditioning (3)
forward conditioning: the neutral stimulus is presented just before the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus; produces the quickest, most effective conditioning
simultaneous conditioning: the neutral stimulus is presented at the same time as the unconditioned stimulus; learning is slower and less effective
backward conditioning: the neutral stimulus is presented after the unconditioned stimulus; often times produces no learning
reinforcement
any event that increases the frequency of a behavioral response
types of reinforcement and punishment (4)
positive reinforcement: involves giving a pleasurable consequence after a response; strengthens the response
negative reinforcement: involves reducing or removing an unpleasurable consequence after a response; increases the rate of responding
positive punishment: involves presenting an unpleasurable consequence after a response; weakens the response
negative punishment (response cost): involves reducing or removing a pleasurable consequence after a response; weakens the response
continuous reinforcement vs partial (intermittent) reinforcement
continuous: every desired response is reinforced, learning (and extinction) occurs rapidly
partial: reinforcement is presented after some, but not all, desired responses
schedules (4)
fixed-ratio: behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses
variable-ratio: behavior is reinforced after a varying number of responses
fixed-interval: there needs to be a set amount of time that elapses and then the next desired behavior gets reinforced
variable-interval: the period of time that must elapse varies from trial to trial; the next behavior after that period of time elapsed gets reinforced
modeling
learning can occur without direct experience; higher-level animals can learn by observing and imitating others (Albert Bandura)
