exam 3: emotion

Question 1

why emotion is difficult to define (5)

Answer 1

• there are many different emotions in the human repertoire of emotions
• some emotions are basic and universal, whereas others are culture-bound (more likely to be experienced and/or expressed in some cultural groups and not in others)
• when we think about the experience of emotion, they vary in their intensity
• different emotions also differ in their valence (some pleasant, some unpleasant)
• some emotions motivate us to take action, while others do not

Question 2

agreed-upon characteristics of emotion (3)

Answer 2

• internal physiological arousal
• expressive behavior in the face and body
• cognitive appraisal (emotions are not just feelings; we can reflect on how we want to express and/or behave in relation to the emotion)

Question 3

“common sense” view of emotions vs James-Lange theory of emotions vs Cannon-Bard theory of emotions

Answer 3

• “common sense” view: emotional experience precedes behavioral expression
• James-Lange theory: emotional experience follows from behavioral expression (i.e. feeling happy because we smile)
• Cannon-Bard theory: physiological/behavioral responses are experienced independently of emotional responses

Question 4

why Cannon-Bard challenged James-Lange (3)

Answer 4

• bodily sensations alone cannot produce emotion
• at times, emotions are experienced instantly, before the body has had time to react
• the physiological changes that do occur with emotions are oftentimes too general to distinguish one emotion from another (i.e. fear, anger, and love all make the heart beat faster)

Question 5

brain centers of emotion (2)

Answer 5

limbic system, cerebral cortex

Question 6

limbic system in emotion (4)

Answer 6

• an evolutionarily primitive set of neural structures
• types of emotions that are controlled tend to be quick and automatic with no cognitive mediation
• amygdala: aggression center
• hypothalamus: basic emotions and drives

Question 7

cerebral cortex in emotion (3)

Answer 7

• issue is that there is no one part of the cortex that regulates all emotions, rather, different emotions have distinct patterns of cortical activity
• pleasant emotions are regulated by the left cerebral hemisphere
• unpleasant emotions are regulated by the right cerebral hemisphere

Question 8

expressive vs behavioral component of emotions

Answer 8

• expressive component: serves as a means of nonverbal communication
• behavioral component: provides us with sensory feedback

Question 9

types of nonverbal communication (2)

Answer 9

facial expression, body language

Question 10

facial expression (Charles Darwin, Paul Ekman et. al, Carroll Izard et. al)

Answer 10

• Charles Darwin (1872): first person to theorize about the importance of facial expression; proposed that the face communicates emotions in ways that are innate and universally understood
• Paul Ekman et al.: confirmed Darwin’s idea; showed that all over the world, people can reliably identify six emotions in the facial expressions of others
• Carroll Izard et al.: confirmed that these emotions are innate (inborn) (evidence: adults can reliably identify emotions on the faces of infants, who make faces associated with these basic emotions)

Question 11

basic emotions (6) (and founder)

Answer 11

• founder: Paul Ekman
• basic emotions: happiness, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, disgust

Question 12

types of nonverbal communication (2)

Answer 12

facial expression, body language

Question 13

survival value of recognition

Answer 13

people recognize aggression more quickly than other emotions

Question 14

body language

Answer 14

a form of nonverbal communication that enables quick judgements of others’ feelings; refers to the way that people stand, sit, walk, and gesture

Question 15

facial-feedback hypothesis

Answer 15

states that changes in facial expression produce corresponding changes in emotion (James-Lange theory)

Question 16

Fritz Strack et al. (1988) (study and findings)

Answer 16

• study: participants watched cartoons with one group holding a pen with their teeth (smile) and the other holding a pen with their lips (frown); those who held the pen with their teeth found the cartoon to be funnier (change in facial expression produced a change in cognitive experience)
• findings: facial expressions can evoke and magnify certain emotions (supported facial-feedback hypothesis)

Question 17

two-factor theory of emotion (founder and definition)

Answer 17

• founder: Schachter
• definition: two factors are necessary to have a specific emotion; (1) to have an emotion, there must be some generalized physiological arousal (i.e. racing heart, sweaty palms, tightening of the stomach, rapid breathing); (2) people must find a cognitive label (attribution) to explain the source of their arousal

Question 18

Schachter and Singer (1962) (study and findings)

Answer 18

• study: male participants were told that they would receive a vitamin supplement (epinephrine increases arousal); one group was the drug-informed group, one was the drug-uninformed group, and one was the placebo control group; after their injection, they met with a confederate who was trained to respond in either a euphoric or angry way; the placebo control group experienced no physiological arousal, the informed group experienced arousal and attributed their generalized arousal to the drug confederate had no effect); the uninformed group felt arousal and reported feeling either happy or angry depending on how the confederate behaved that they encountered
• findings: found evidence that supports the two-factor theory of emotion

Question 19

misattribution

Answer 19

arousal produced by one source (stimulus) can be misattributed or transferred to another source (Schachter)

Question 20

Dutton and Aron (1974) (study and findings)

Answer 20

• study: male participants crossed a river using either a narrow and wobbly bridge that was suspended 230 feet above the rocky rapids or a wide and sturdy bridge that was suspended only 10 feet above a calm part of the river; the male participants were approached by a female research assistant while crossing the bridge; she said to call her if they want more information about the study; the participants who crossed the river using the narrow, wobbly bridge were significantly more likely to call the research assistant, presumably to find out more about the study (more physically aroused); they misattributed their arousal to the research assistant and classified them as amorous feelings
• findings: found evidence that supports the misattribution theory

Question 21

levels of happiness (percentage in the US)

Answer 21

75% of Americans describe themselves as happy

Question 22

roots of happiness (3)

Answer 22

social relationships, employment status, health (unrelated to age, gender, race, ethnicity, IQ/intelligence, level of education, and levels of attractiveness)

Question 23

money vs happiness (correlation)

Answer 23

longitudinal research suggests no correlation between money and happiness over time

Question 24

why money can’t buy happiness (2)

Answer 24

social-comparison theory, biological set-point for happiness

Question 25

social-comparison theory

Answer 25

perceptions of wealth are relative (not absolute); people compare themselves to others and either feel contended or deprived

Question 26

biological set-point for happiness

Answer 26

each individual has a predetermined biological level of happiness (more strongly correlated among identical twins than among fraternal twins); fluctuations in mood following negative or positive events tend to wear off over time; levels of happiness are relatively stable over time