exam 2

Question 1

without memory (pros and cons)

Answer 1

• without memory, there would be no recollection of past experiences and no emotion associated with those experiences
• pros: no hurt or anger over past transgressions
• cons: no ability to reminisce or savor the good experiences or to learn from past experiences (every learned behavior would have to be relearned); no ability for language, others would be like strangers, you would be a stranger to yourself

Question 2

memory

Answer 2

learning [of thoughts, feelings, and behavior] that has persisted over time; a process of storing information and retrieving information for later use

Question 3

memory metaphors (5)

Answer 3

the stamping of an impression into a block of wax; a storage box into which we pour our experiences; a library; a tape recorder; if the mind is a computer, then memory is an information-processing system

Question 4

steps for memory (3)

Answer 4

• encoding: the process by which we get information into the brain (not all experiences make their way into the brain)
• storage: the process by which we retain information, assuming it is encoded (some for a fraction of a second, some for a lifetime)
• retrieval: the process whereby we get information out of our brain for a later use (the information is there but we have to be able to retrieve it)

Question 5

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model (definition)

Answer 5

the process of memory (formation of memories) occurs in a three-stage process: sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory

Question 6

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model (description of stages)

Answer 6

• sensory memory (first stage): we first record information as a fleeting sensory experience; literal copies of sensory information that are held for brief periods of time (from a fraction of a second up until three seconds (ex. blinking))
• short-term memory (second stage): memory is then encoded in our memory system through rehearsal; has limits (can hold only a few (about seven) items for a brief period of time (twenty seconds))
• long-term memory (third stage): information is moved to a relatively permanent and limitless storehouse for later retrieval (only some memories go here); can hold vast quantities of information for years; includes not only facts and experiences, but also things like our accumulated knowledge, skills, and experiences (ex. tying shoes)

Question 7

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model (revisions)

Answer 7

• some information skips stages one and two (enters into long-term memory without conscious awareness)
• short-term memory is thought of as working memory; information is actively processed (new stimuli are associated with existing memories, and problems are actively worked through and solved)

Question 8

types of information processing (2)

Answer 8

• automatic processing: much information processing occurs without conscious awareness and with little or no effort
• effortful processing: requires deliberate, conscious attention for the information to be processed

Question 9

effortful processing effects (serial position, recency, primacy)

Answer 9

• serial position effect: we tend to recall best the last and the first items in a list
• recency effect: immediately after learning, we recall the last (most recent) items the best
• primacy effect: after a delay, we recall the first items that we learned the best

Question 10

types of sensory memory and what would happen without them (2)

Answer 10

• iconic memory is a fleeting photographic memory (a mental trace lingers in our mind after a stimulus has been removed from view (retina); problem is that memory fades quickly)
• without iconic memory, you would lose track of what you see with every blink of the eye
• echoic memory is a fleeting auditory memory (holds only a few items but lasts for several seconds; adaptive advantage)
• without echoic memory, speech would be difficult to understand

Question 11

Sperling’s (1960) experiment explanations (2) and suggestion

Answer 11

• One explanation is that people could only register so much information in a single glance.
• Another explanation is that all of the information registered, but the image faded from memory before the information could be reported.
• This suggests that visual information registers in the brain and can be recalled in amazing detail for a brief period of time.
  (experiment: flashing letters on a screen; participants could only recall about five items no matter how many letters there were)

Question 12

duration and capacity (storage capacity, chunking) limits of short-term memory

Answer 12

• duration limits: short-term memories have a limited life if they are not actively (meaningfully) processed (can avoid forgetting by repeating information silently or aloud)
• capacity limits: at any given moment, we can consciously process a very limited amount of information
• storage capacity: once short-term memory is filled to capacity, the storage of new information requires existing information to be discarded or replaced
• chunking: although short-term memory can only hold a limited amount of items, these items can be grouped into chunks, and it enables us to process short-term memory with more efficiency

Question 13

elaborative rehearsal (long-term memory encoding)

Answer 13

a strategy that involves thinking about material in more meaningful ways and associating that information with other memories (the more deeply you process information, the more likely you are to recall it at a later time)

Question 14

semantic and visual coding (format), procedural and declarative memory (content) (long-term memory storage)

Answer 14

• semantic coding: when we process verbal information, we store the meaning of the information, not the specific words
• visual coding: a mental picture is generated of an object or a scene
• procedural memory: our stored knowledge of learned habits and skills. (ex. how to drive, swim, etc.); stored without conscious recollection
• declarative memory contains our semantic memories for facts about the world. (ex. president); also involves episodic memories that we have about ourselves (ex. birthday); information that we can consciously know and declare

Question 15

ways of retrieving memory (recall, recognition, relearning)

Answer 15

• recall is the ability to retrieve information that is not in conscious awareness (ex. fill in the blank test)
• recognition is the ability to identify information that was previously learned (ex. multiple choice, true/false)
• relearning is the ability to spend less time learning material for a second time

Question 16

context-dependent and state-dependent memory

Answer 16

• context-dependent memory: people find it easier to retrieve information from memory when they are in the same situation or context in which the information was originally learned
• state-dependent memory: it is oftentimes easier to recall something when our state of mind is the same at testing as it was at encoding

Question 17

Godden and Baddeley’s (1975) experiment

Answer 17

They presented scuba divers with a list of words in two settings. Half of the scuba divers were presented with the words fifteen feet underwater. The other half were presented with the words on the beach. The divers were either tested in the same setting in which they learned or in the opposite setting. The results showed that the divers recalled 40% more of the information when the material was learned and retrieved in the same context.

Question 18

forgetting

Answer 18

an adaptive, economical aspect of human memory

Question 19

Luria’s observations of Solomon Shereshevskii (S.)

Answer 19

• S. could memorize dozens of different items and recite them forward and backward. He could also recite them forward and backward fifteen years later. He could not forget the information that he learned. His mind was clouded by images of letters, numbers, and other trivial pieces of information that were distracting. He was unable to think abstractly, to generalize his thoughts beyond the immediate circumstance, to organize his thoughts, and to evaluate information. S. had to quit his job and entertain audiences.
• Without an ability to forget, we would be overwhelmed with out-of-date and irrelevant information.

Question 20

reasons for forgetting

Answer 20

• encoding: some information, even though it is perceived by the five senses, is never encoded into long-term memory in the first place (such information tends to be trivial or useless)
• interference: how information interferes with other information in our minds
• proactive interference: prior information inhibits our ability to recall something new
• retroactive interference: new information that we learn disrupts memory for previously learned information

Question 21

homo sapiens

Answer 21

“wise humans”

Question 22

concepts
semantic networks
priming concepts
prototype

Answer 22

• concepts: the basic building blocks of abstract thought; refer to mental groupings of similar persons, places, ideas, events, and objects (ex. freedom, peace, happiness); used to simplify all of the information we possess in memory
• semantic networks: organized hierarchies in long-term memory in which concepts are sorted
• priming concepts: when one concept in our semantic network is activated, other closely-related concepts seem to pop into mind
• prototype: a “typical” member of a category (one that has most of the defining features of that category)

Question 23

Meyer and Schvaneveldt (1971)

Answer 23

Participants were presented with pairs of letter strings. Some strings formed words while others did not. The participants were asked to decide quickly if both letter strings formed words. In some trials, the two-letter strings were semantically related (ex. nurse/doctor). In other trials, the letter strings were not semantically related (ex. bread/doctor). Schvaneveldt found that participants were quickest to find that both letter strings are words when they were semantically related.

Question 24

mental images and models (representing the problem)

Answer 24

• mental images: sometimes used to represent a problem (ex. do you turn the key away or toward you to turn on the ignition?)
• mental models: intuitive theories of the way things work; can be powerful tools for reasoning when accurate because they allow us to diagnose and solve the problem quickly (ex. righty tighty, lefty loosey; caulking the bathroom instead of replacing every pipe)

Question 25

trial-and-error, algorithms, heuristics, insight (generating solutions to problems)

Answer 25

• trial-and-error: an aimless, hit-or-miss approach to problem-solving; not the most efficient
• algorithms: step-by-step procedures that are guaranteed eventually to generate a solution; hard to consider so many possible solutions
• heuristics are mental shortcuts, or rules of thumb, that may or may not lead to the correct solution
• insight: a process in which the solution seems to pop into one’s mind all of a sudden, and it arises when we find ourselves at an impasse (relax, refrain, and switch from one possible solution to another)

Question 26

representation failures, functional fixedness, mental sets, confirmation bias, belief perseverance (“blind spots” in problem-solving)

Answer 26

• representation failures: people often conceptualize problems in ways that make the problems seem impossible (people can suffer psychologically from this)
• functional fixedness: a tendency to think of an object only in terms of its usual function
• mental sets: we have the inability to view a problem from a fresh perspective
• confirmation bias: once we think we have a solution, we tend to seek evidence that confirms our belief rather than seeking evidence that refutes our belief (can keep us from realizing that our belief is in error)
• belief perseverance: the tendency to cling to your initial belief even after those beliefs have been discredited

Question 27

representativeness heuristic, availability heuristic, anchoring effects, framing effects (biases in judgment)

Answer 27

• representativeness heuristic: the tendency to judge the likelihood of an event by how typical the event seems
• availability heuristic: the tendency to estimate the likelihood of an event based on how easily instances of that event come to mind (can be both useful and problematic)
• anchoring effects: the tendency to use one stimulus as an anchor, or “reference point,” in judging a second stimulus (ex. spinning of a wheel to determine the value of something)
• framing effects: the tendency to be influenced by the way that an issue is worded or framed (ex. 80% lean vs 20% fat beef)

Question 28

language

Answer 28

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

Question 29

semanticity (phonemes, morphemes), generativity (grammar, semantics, syntax), displacement (universal characteristics of language)

Answer 29

• semanticity: language is used to convey meaning
• phonemes the basic sounds, or building blocks, of all spoken language; smallest units of speech (they alone do not convey sound that is meaningful)
• morphemes are the smallest units that carry meaning. (ex. three prefixes in “unthinkable”: “un,” “think,” “able”)
• generativity: we can use a finite number of words to create an infinite variety of novel expressions; based on grammar
• grammar: the system of rules that allows us to communicate with others
• semantics: the rules of grammar that are used to derive meaning
• syntax: the rules of grammar that govern the arrangement of words in a sentence
• displacement: language can be used to communicate about things other than what is in our immediate experience (past, hopes for future, people who are not present)

Question 30

operant conditioning perspective (and principles (3)) vs inborn universal grammar

Answer 30

• operant conditioning perspective: proposed by B.F. Skinner; we can apply learning principles to language developed
• association: humans form links between the sights of objects and the sounds of words that are used to specify those objects
• imitation: humans learn language, in part, by modeling the words and the syntax of others
• reinforcement: when children learn language correctly, they receive positive reinforcement
• inborn universal grammar: proposed by Noam Chomsky; children acquire language at a rate that is far too extraordinary to be understood by the principles of learning alone (when properly supported, they will develop language to whatever extent their nurture supports)

Question 31

reification

Answer 31

the tendency to view an abstract, immaterial concept as a concrete thing

Question 32

intelligence

Answer 32

the capacity to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt successfully to one’s environment and new situations; a socially-constructed concept

Question 33

definitions of intelligence from various cultures (industrialized individuals, South Pacific islanders, Kalahari Bushmen in Africa, gang members)

Answer 33

• industrialized individuals: the ability to solve problems
• South Pacific islanders: the ability to navigate the ocean from one island to the next
• Kalahari Bushmen in Africa: the ability to hunt and gather food
• gang members: street smarts; navigating the rules of the environment

Question 34

theory of general intelligence (1 person)
theory of multiple intelligences (3 people)

Answer 34

• general intelligence: Charles Spearman proposed that a general intelligence underlies all mental abilities; people who excel at one task tend to excel at a variety of tasks
• multiple intelligences: Louis L. Thurstone administered 56 different tests to college students and concluded with factor analysis that human intelligence ought not to be understood as a singular concept, rather as seven primary mental abilities; Howard Gardner believed that intelligence is too narrow of a concept and does not encompass the many kinds of genius that we see eight types of intelligence; Robert Sternberg argued that there are three types of intelligence

Question 35

g factor

Answer 35

a common skillset that underlies all intelligent behavior (Charles Spearman)

Question 36

evidence for the g factor (4)

Answer 36

• factor analysis: a statistical technique in which you look for correlations among different measures; intellectual abilities tend to be highly correlated.
• infant measures of intelligence: infants as young as 3-6 months of age tend to be responsive to changes in their environment; kids who are more responsive to changes in their environment tend to score higher on IQ tests in early and middle childhood
• neural speed: people with higher levels of intelligence are quicker than average on a range of tests
• neural efficiency: people with higher levels of intelligence use mental energy more efficiently (less glucose)

Question 37

eight types of intelligence (Howard Gardner)

Answer 37

• linguistic: refers to our skills for speaking, listening, reading, and writing
• logical-mathematical: necessary for solving puzzles and equations
• musical: seen in musical composition and/or in musical performance
• spatial: the ability to visualize objects to find one’s orientation in 3D space and to navigate between locations
• bodily-kinesthetic: the ability to control gross and fine body movements
• interpersonal: the ability to understand how other people feel, what motivates them, and what they like and do not like (between people)
• intrapersonal: the ability for insight into one’s own thoughts and feelings (one’s own action) and to make effective decisions
• naturalist: the ability to understand the laws of the natural world

Question 38

three types of intelligence (Robert Sternberg)

Answer 38

• analytic: the ability to follow the mental steps necessary to solve problems
• creative: the ability to find connections between ideas or concepts that may appear to be unconnected and to combine facts in ways that seem unrelated
• practical: the ability to do as necessary to adapt to the demands of life

Question 39

creativity

Answer 39

the ability to produce novel, valuable ideas

Question 40

components of creativity (5)

Answer 40

• expertise: creativity almost requires a well-developed base of knowledge
• imaginative thinking: to be creative, it is necessary that we view issues in novel ways and recognize patterns in the data that are not readily apparent to others and to make connections between and among facts that seem unrelated
• venturesome personality: people who are creative tend to seek out new experiences and are willing to tolerate ambiguity (not knowing how things are going to work out) and risk
• intrinsic motivation: being motivated out of interest and a sense of choice makes someone tend to be more likely to be creative (interest and choice are the pillars of creativity; they stand in contrast to a feeling of pressure and control)
• creative environment: environments that spark, support, and refine creative ideas

Question 41

emotional intelligence is the ability to… (4)

Answer 41

• perceive: to recognize feelings in faces, stories, and music
• understand emotions: to predict feelings and to predict how those feelings change in ourselves and others
• manage emotions: the ability to know how to express feelings in a variety of situations
• use emotions: the ability to use our feelings to enable adaptive, creative thought

Question 42

Francis Galton
Henry Goddard
Arthur Jensen
William Shockley

Answer 42

• Francis Galton: maintained that there are some people who are intelligent and there are some people who are just not intelligent; intelligence is genetically rooted (not just siblings, but out to cousins; cousin was Charles Darwin); made the case that only bright, intelligent adults should be encouraged or even allowed to reproduce
• Henry Goddard: tested European immigrants as they made their way to the U.S.; those who were believed to be inferior were deported.
• Arthur Jensen noticed IQ tests between African American and Caucasian American adults; having noticed a difference, he suggested that intelligence is genetically rooted and that African Americans were genetically inferior
• William Shockley: urged the U.S. government to start a voluntary sterilization program; for each IQ point below 100 that they have, you pay them $1000 to get sterilized to take their genes out of the gene pool

Question 43

self-fulfilling prophecy

Answer 43

people’s expectations about intelligence can lead to its fulfillment

Question 44

Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968)

Answer 44

Elementary school teachers were told that some of their students were on the verge of an intellectual growth spurt. The pupils were randomly selected, with no basis on an actual trajectory or proficiency. The researchers came back months later to find that the late bloomers actually improved more than the kids who were not identified as late bloomers. Rosenthal and Jacobson discovered that the expectations that teachers have about their students’ intellectual ability can influence how well the students perform in the classroom.

Question 45

Steele and Aronson (1995)

Answer 45

There were two groups of African American and Caucasian-American students. They were all given a test. In one condition, the students were told that the items on the test are used to evaluate how people solve problems (non-diagnostic condition). In another condition, the students were told that the items on the test measure verbal reasoning ability (diagnostic condition). In the non-diagnostic condition, the students performed equally well. In the diagnostic condition, the African Americans underperformed in relation to the Caucasian Americans. As a group, African Americans tended to view the intelligence items as something they are not likely to do well on.

Question 46

Spencer et al. (1999)

Answer 46

Some females were told that the items on the test favored men, while others were told that the items were gender-neutral. Those who were told that the items favored men underperformed.

Question 47

Stone et al. (1999)

Answer 47

African American and Caucasian American students were asked to putt as part of a sports aptitude test. Some were told that putting required natural athletic ability, while others were told that putting required intelligence. The African Americans performed better when they were told that putting is based on natural athletic ability. In contrast, the Caucasian Americans performed better in relation to the African Americans when they were told that putting is based on intellectual ability.