Exam 2 Flashcards
HPG
Hypothalamus
(anterior) pituitary
gonads
HPT
Hypothalamus
(anterior) pituitary
thyroid
In females LH does what
causes ovulation
In females FSH does what
controls the menstrual cycle
initiates follicle growth
In males LH does what
development of testosterone
In males FSH does what
sperm cell genesis
Half life of a hormone
the time required for its concentration to decrease to half of its initial concentration
Half life is inversely related to
metabolic clearance rate
PDE
phosphodiesterase
ends the 2nd messenger system by dephosphorylating the enzyme
Afferent
away from the tissue
Efferent
towards the tissue
Three main examples for Afferent vs. Efferent
Blood vessels
Lymph vessels
Nerves
Types of cell communication
Endocrine
Autocrine
Paracrine
Juxtracrine
Intracrine
Endocrine cell communication
target sites are on distant cells
Autocrine cell communication
signal is released outside of the cell and acts on itself
Paracrine cell communication
target sites are on adjacent cells, rapid breakdown of ligand helps prevent distant effects
Juxtracrine cell communication
ligand on signaling cell binds target cell receptors
Intracrine cell communication
signal is released within the cell and acts within the cell
Organs involved in the endocrine system
Pineal gland
pituitary gland
thyroid
adrenal gland
pancreas
uterus/ovaries in female
testes in male
Posterior pituitary hormones
ADH
Oxytocin
ADH is released by the _____, targets the _____, and effects ______.
released by the hypothalamus
stored in the posterior pituitary
targets the kidneys, sweat glands, circulatory system
Effects water balance
Oxytocin (OT) is made by the ______, targets the ______, and effects _______
made by the posterior pituitary
targets the female reproductive system
effects- triggers uterine contractions during childbirth
Anterior pituitary hormones
LH-luteinizing hormone
FSH-follicle stimulating hormone
TSH- Thyroid stimulating hormone
PRL-Prolactin
GH-growth hormone
ACTH-adrenocorticotropic hormone
Luteinizing hormone is released by _______, released from the _______, targets the _______, and effects _____
Released by GnRH
Released from the anterior pituitary
targets the reproductive system
stimulates production of sex hormones by the gonads
Follicle Stimulating hormone is released by _____, released from _____, targets ______, and effects _____
released by GnRH
released from the anterior pituitary
targets the reproductive system
effect- stimulates production of sperm and eggs
Thyroid Stimulating hormone is released by _____, released from the _____, targets _____, and effects ______
released by Thyroid Releasing Hormone
released from the anterior pituitary
targets the thyroid gland
effect- stimulates the release of thyroid hormone which regulates metabolism
Prolactin is released by _____, released from _____, targets ______, and effects ______
released by Prolactin releasing hormone (inhibited by Parathyroid inhibiting hormone)
released from the anterior pituitary
targets the mammary glands
effect- promotes milk production
Growth hormone is released by ______, released from _____, targets _____, and effects ______
released by growth hormone releasing hormone (inhibited by Growth hormone inhibiting hormone)
released from the anterior pituitary
targets the liver, bone, muscle
effect- induces targets to produce Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) which then stimulates body growth and a higher metabolic rate
ACTH is released by _____, released from _____, targets _____, and effects _____
released by CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone)
released from the anterior pituitary
targets the adrenal glands
effect- induces targets to produce glucocorticoids, which regulate metabolism and the stress response
Tissue types in the pituitary
PD-pars distalis- anterior
PN-pars nervosa- posterior
PI- pars intermedia- intermediate
Anterior pituitary cell types
acidophils
basophils
chromophobes
Acidophils do what
protein hormones
GH, PRL
Basophils do what
glycoprotein hormones
ACTH, TSH, FSH, LH
Chromophobes are
support cells
The hypothalamus releases growth hormone-releasing hormone that stimulates
the anterior pituitary to release growth hormone
The release of growth hormone
stimulates adipose cells to break down stored fat, fueling growth effects
increases uptake of amino acids from blood and enhances cellular proliferation and reduces apoptosis
stimulates liver to break down glycogen into glucose, fueling growth effects
When the liver is stimulated by GH it does what
breaks down glycogen into glucose
releases IFG-1 which stimulates growth effects further
High IGF-1 levels are perceived by the _______ and cause _______
hypothalamus
cause GHIH release to inhibit GH in the anterior pituitary
slows growth effects
ADH does what
regulates blood pressure
Hormone regulation techniques
feedback loops
half life and clearance rates
source
targets (receptors)
Galactorrhea
abnormal or prolonged lactation/overgrowth of the cells that produce prolactin
Cushing’s Syndrome
too much cortisol (glucocorticoid)
pituitary tumor overproduces ACTH
Growth Hormone Problems
hyposomatotropinism
hypersomatotropinism
caused by trauma or a tumor
Hyposomatotropinism
not enough growth hormone
dwarfism
Hypersomatotropinism
too much growth hormone
In adults it leads to acromegaly
In children it leads to gigantism
Polyuria
produces abnormally high volumes of dilute urine
Polydipsia
excessive thirst
Hyponatremia
low Na+ blood retention
Hypernatremia
High Na+ in the blood
Hyponatremia results from
excessive urine
Hypernatremia results from
extreme thirst
Diabetes insipidus four types
Central
nephrogenic
dipsogenic
gestational
Diabetes insipidus- Central type is caused by
lack of ADH
Diabetes insipidus- nephrogenic is caused by
ADH production is okay but kidneys don’t respond
Diabetes insipidus- dipsogenic is caused by
problem with hypothalamus makes you thirsty- drink too much
Diabetes insipidus- gestational is caused by
placenta making too much enzyme that breaks down ADH
Thyroid gland hormones
thyroxine T4
triiodothyronine T3
Calcitonin
Thyroxine T4 and triiodothyronine T3 are what class of hormone
amine
Thyroxine T4 and triiodothyronine effect
stimulate basal metabolic rate
Calcitonin is what class of hormone
peptide
Calcitonin effects
reduces blood Ca2+ levels
Hypothyroidism
levels of thyroid hormone are low
gland can be small or large (goiter)
weight gain, tiredness, cold
Iodine deficiency
Hyperthyroidism
levels of thyroid hormone are high
high energy levels, skinny, overheat easy
Thyroid Hormone synthesis
- inorganic iodide is transported into the gland
- intrathyroidal iodide is oxidized to iodine under the influence of H2O2 and peroxidase
- iodine is bound in thyroglobulin to tyrosine, forming monoiodotryrosine and diiodotyrosine
- the iodotyrosines are enzymatically coupled to form thyroxine and triiodothyronine
- iodothyronines, T4 and T3, are stored in thyroglobulin until released into circulation
- the unused iodotyrosines are deiodinated and the iodide is recycled
parathyroid hormone is the opposite of
calcitonin
Parathyroid hormone effects
increases blood calcium levels when they are low
Adrenal gland regions
medulla- middle
cortex- outer
Adrenal cortex zones
Zona reticularis- inner
Zona fasciculata- middle
Zona glomerulosa- outer
The Zona reticularis secretes what hormone
mineralcorticoids
Aldosterone
Zona fasciculata secretes
glucocorticoids
cortisol
corticosterone
cortisone
Zona glomerulosa secretes
Gonadocorticoids
Hormones of the Adrenal glands
Aldosterone
Cortisol, corticosterone, cortisone
epinephrine/norepinephrine
Aldosterone is what class of hormone
steroid
Aldosterone effect
increases blood Na+ levles
Cortisol, corticosterone, cortisone hormone class
steroid
cortisol, corticosterone, cortisone effect
increases blood glucose leveles
Epinephrine, norepinephrine hormone class
amine
Epinephrine, norepinephrine effect
stimulates fight or flight response
3 plasma proteins that are found bound to thyroid hormone
thyroxine
transthyretin
albumin
Parathyroid glands have what type of receptors
calcium sensing that mobilize intracellular calcium in response to activation
Two cell types in the parathyroid
oxyphil cells- function unknown thought to be retired chief cells
Chief cells- make/secrete parathyroid hormone
Parathyroid hormone does what
stimulates osteoclasts, inhibits osteoblasts
stimulates reabsorption int kidney
stimulates calcitriol in the kidneys
thyroid hormone function
regulation of basal metabolic rate
protein synthesis
normal fetal and childhood development
interact with repro hormones
increase sensitivity to catecholamines
Pineal gland function
light induced activation of suprachiasmatic nucleus
which prevents melatonin secretion from the pinacocytes
Pinacocytes create
melatonin
Reproductive hormones of the testes
testosterone
Inhibin
Testosterone is what class of hormone
steroid
testosterone effect on testes
stimulates development of male secondary sex characteristics and sperm production
inhibin hormone class
protein
inhibin effect on testes
inhibits FSH release from the pituitary
hormones of the ovaries
estrogens and progesterones
Estrogens and progesterones hormone class
steroid
estrogens and progesterones effect on the ovaries
stimulates development of female secondary sex characteristics and prepare body for childbirth
hormone of the placenta
human chorionic gonadotropin
human chorionic gonadotropin hormone class
protein
human chorionic gonadotropin effect on placenta
promotes progesterone synthesis during pregnancy and inhibits immune response against the fetus
Length of the estrus cycle in cattle
21 days
What happens in the luteal phase of the estrus cycle
Under the influence of progesterone
day 1-17
ovulation marks the beginning of this phase
group of follicles are recruited and grown in response to FSH
One follicle becomes dominant and matures in to an ovum
LH causes the cells on the ovary that made up the follicle differentiate and make a Corpus luteum
CL makes progesterone which inhibits LH and FSH and prevents ovulation
If not pregnant prostaglandin lyses the luteal tissue and causes regression
Follicular phase of the estrus cycle
begins with the removal of progesterone which allows for GnRH pulses
Results in more FSH and LH production which supports follicular development
The dominant follicle produces increasing amounts of estrogen that once it reaches threshold, a surge of LH results in ovulation
How is vitamin D made
a precursor gets converted in the skin by UV, then modified in the liver, and modified again in the kidney to the active form
General Adaptation syndrome GAS is
responses to stress- 3 stages
3 stages of GAS
- alarm reaction-fight or flight-short term
- resistance-adapt metabolism
- exhaustion-depression, immune suppression, weight gain
RAAS (renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system)
Blood pressure falls
kidneys release renin
renin splits angiotensinogen (made in liver) into pieces- angiotensin I
Angiotensin is inactive and flows through the blood, split by ACE in lungs and kidneys to make angiotensin II which is active
angiotensin II causes arterioles to constrict- increasing blood pressure and triggering adrenal glands to release aldosterone to pituitary and ADH
Aldosterone and ADH cause kidneys to retain sodium which increases sodium and causes water retention
Endocrine pancreas synthesizes and secretes hormones into the
blood
Where the cell types in the endocrine pancreas reside
islets of langerhans
Cell types in the Islets of langerhan
alpha, beta, delta, PP cells
which make glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide
Exocrine pancreas synthesizes and secretes
digestive hormones
Insulin is made in
the pancreas by beta cells
Hormones of the pancreas
Insulin
glucagon
Insulin is what hormone class
protein
Insulin effects
reduces blood glucose levels
Glucagon is what hormone class
protein
Glucagon effect
inhibits blood glucose levels
Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 is
autoimmune- attacks beta cells that make insulin
Diabetes Mellitus Type 2
acquired insulin resistance
beta cells secrete insulin and become exhausted
Kidney hormones
Renin
Calcitriol
erythropoietin EPO
Renin effect
stimulates release of aldosterone
Calcitriol effect
aids in absorption of Ca2+
Erythropoietin EPO effects
triggers the formation of red blood cells in the bone marrow
Adipose tissue hormone
leptin
Leptin effect
promotes satiety signals in the brain
Skin hormones
Cholecalciferol
Cholecalciferol effect
modified into vitamin D
Liver hormones
Insulin
angiotensinogen
Insulin is triggered by
food in intestine
blood glucose levels
Organs/glands that don’t require insulin to take up glucose
RBC, brain, liver, kidneys, small intestine lining, lactating mammary glands
Target cells of insulin
skeletal muscle and adipocytes
lots of them so they balance out the organs that don’t need insulin to take up glucose
Insulin Action
activates tyrosine kinase receptors
move intracellular vesicles with glucose transporters to the cell membrane
fuse and expose glucose transporters to extracellular fluid which then move glucose into the cell by facilitative diffusion
Glycogen
branched
how glucose is stored
does not affect glucose equilibrium
bonds in glycogen
1.4 and 1.6
Insulin stimulates
glycolysis
glycogenesis
lipogenesis
protein synthesis
Insulin inhibits
glycogenolysis
gluconeogenesis
Insulin like growth factor (IGF-1) is secreted in the _____ and effects _____
liver
stimulates bodily growth
what is called the 2nd brain
the gut
Alimentary tract
goes from mouth to anus
Layers of the GI tract
Mucosa
submucosa
muscularis
serosa
epithelial lining meant for protection uses
stratifies squamous
nothing gets in/no absorption
epithelial lining meant for absorption uses
simple columnar
has the height to fit take up, modification, and transport out of
Lumen
the opening in the middle
goblet cells
column shaped cells that secrete mucus
mucus
secreted by mucus membranes for lubrication and protection
Enteroendocrine cells
make hormones and secrete them in the gut
mucosa layer contains
lamina propia- loose CT
- blood and lymph vessels
-MALT-mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue
muscularis mucosa- smooth muscle layer that tone creates folds
Submucosa layer contains
dense CT
blood, lymph, submucosal glands, nerves
muscularis externa- not at certain parts
Serosa layer
only in the abdominal cavity
loose CT layer
Two types of GI nerve supply
intrinsic
extrinsic
intrinsic nerves
enteric neurons independent of the CNS
mouth to anus
Myenteric plexus is responsible for
peristalsis
submucosal plexus
submucosa
regulates digestive secretions
reacts to food/chemicals/nutrients
Extrinsic nerves
autonomic nervous system
fight or flight-inhibits intrinsic
rest and digest-stimulates intrinsic
Blood supply to the GI tract is used to
transport absorbed AAs and carbs
supply nutrients to gut cells
The hepatic portal system makes sure that
the liver gets first shot at processing and storing what is absorbed
During rest and digest what happens to blood flow
25% goes to the gut to aid with function
GI tract peritoneum layers
parietal
visceral
parietal layer
lines abdominal wall
visceral layer
surrounds the gut organs
6 activities of GIT
ingestion
propulsion
mechanical/physical digestion
chemical digestion
absorption
defecation
Function of the mouth
break up food particles
function of salivary glands
moisten and lubricate food
amylase digests polysaccharides
function of esophagus
transport food
Function of liver
break down and build biological molecules
store vitamins and iron
destroy old blood cells
destroy poisons
secrete bile
Function of gallbladder
store and concentrate bile
Function of stomach
stores and churns food
pepsin digest protein
HCl breaks down food and kills germs
mucus protects the stomach
limited absorption
Function of small intestine
absorb nutrients, most water
peptidase digest proteins
sucrases digest sugars
amylase digests polysaccharides
Function of pancreas
hormones regulate glucose levels
bicarbonate neutralizes stomach acid
trypsin and chymotrypsin digest proteins
amylase digest polysaccharides
lipase digest lipids
Function of large intestine
reabsorption of some water
forms and stores feces
function of anus
opening for eliminating feces
function of rectum
store and expels feces
chyme
soup of digesta, acid and enzymes
segmentation
peristalsis forward and reverse for more movement
Long reflexes are
extrinsic
short reflexes are
intrinsic
Endocrine two secretions
Gastrin
Secretin
Gastrin
secreted in stomach
food present stimulates acid secretion from parietal cells
Secretin
secreted in duodenum
neutralizes stomach acid
CCK- cholecytokinin
stimulates pancreatic enzymes and bile
GIP-gastric inhibitory peptide
slows motility and emptying
Plexus
network of nerves, blood, or lymph vessels
Omentum
a fold of the peritoneum
Greater omentum
lies superficial of the small intestine and transverse colon
site of fat deposition in overweight people
lesser Omentum
suspends the stomach from the inferior border of the liver
provides a pathway for structures connecting to the liver
Glucagon-like peptide I
tissue specific posttranslational modification of proglucagon
produced by enteroendocrine upon food intake
Oral cavity
the mouth
Labia
lips
oral vestibule
the space between the soft tissue and the teeth and gums
Fauces
the narrow passage from the mouth to the pharynx situated between the soft palate and the base of the tongue
Hard palate
a thin horizontal bony plate made up of two bones of the facial skeleton, located in the roof of the mouth
soft palate
the muscular part at the back of the roof of the mouth
Uvula
the soft flap of tissue that hangs down at the back of the mouth
Tonsils palatine/lingual
two round, fleshy masses in the back of the throat
part of the immune system
Job of the tongue
creates the bolus
Papillae
tastebuds/ touch receptors
Lingual lipase
under the tongue
releases digestion enzyme for lipids
Lingual frenulum
folds of mucus membrane under the center of the tongue
anchors the tongue
Three salivary glands
submandibular
sublingual
parotid
submandibular
under the mandible
sublingual salivary glands are located
under the tongue
parotid salivary glands are located
beneath the front of each ear
Job of saliva
lubricate and digest
Components of saliva
95% water
amylase
bicarb and phosphate
Salivation is controlled by
autonomic nervous system and conditioning
Deciduous
baby teeth
incisors
narrow edged tooth at the front of the mouth
used for cutting
Cuspids
canine teeth
pointed tooth between the incisors and premolars
Bicuspids
permanent teeth located between the canine teeth and the molars
premolar teeth
molars
a tooth with a rounded or flattened surface adapted for grinding
Cusp
tip or point
Digestive function of lips and cheeks
confine food between teeth
digestive functions of the salivary glands
secrete saliva
digestive function of tongue extrinsic muscle
move the tongue sideways and in and out to shape food into a bolus and manipulate to swallow
Digestive function of tongue intrinsic muscle
changes tongues shape and manipulate food
Digestive function of taste buds
sense food in the mouth and sense taste
Digestive function of lingual glands
secrete lingual lipase to break down lipids
digestive function of teeth
shred and crush food
mechanical digestion
Parts of the pharynx
nasopharynx
oropharynx
laryngopharynx
Job of nasopharynx
breathing and speaking
Job of oropharynx
breathe and digest
job of Laryngopharynx
breathe and digest
The upper esophageal sphincter job
controls movement of food from pharynx to esophagus
The lower esophageal sphincter job
movement of food from esophagus to stomach
Peristalsis
propels bolus through the esophagus
Deglutition means
swallowing
Three phases of deglutition
Voluntary
Pharyngeal
Esophageal
What happens during the pharyngeal phase during deglutition
reflex to ovula
soft palate causes deglutition apnea
laryngeal muscle closes trachea
What happens during the esophageal phase
enters esophagus triggering peristalsis and mucus
relaxes cardiac sphincter
4 regions of the stomach
cardia
fundus
body
pylorus
what does the surface of the stomach have
mucus cells and gastric pits
Cells of gastric glands
Parietal cells
chief cells
mucous neck cells
enteroendocrine cells
Parietal cells are located where and do what
in the middle of the gastric gland
secrete HCl and intrinsic factor required for vit B12 absorption in the SI
Chief cells are located where and does what
base of the gastric gland
secretes pepsinogen
Mucous neck cells do what
secrete thin mucus used to protect
Enteroendocrine cells do what
secrete hormones in the GIT
Hormones of Enteroendocrine cells of the stomach
Gastrin
Ghrelin
somatostatin
Gastrin is secreted by, targets what, and does what action
secreted by G cells
small intestine- muscle contraction
Ileocecal valve- releases
Large intestine- mass movement- defecation
Ghrelin is secreted by, targets what, and does what action
mucosa
stimulated by fasting
targets hypothalamus
effects hunger/satiety
Somatostatin is secreted by, targets what, and does what action
mucosa
stomach-decrease secretions, motility, emptying
pancreas- decreases secretions
small intestine- decreases absorption and blood flow
Gastric secretion 3 phases
cephalic
gastric
intestinal
What happens during the Cephalic phase of Gastric secretion
reflex phase- conditioned reflex
no food in the stomach yet
What happens during the gastric phase of gastric secretion
3-4 hours
food enters, stomach stretches, secretions and contractions
What happens during the intestinal phase of gastric secretion
Excitatory- chyme in the duodenum- enteric gastrin and increases gastric juice
Inhibitory- duodenum is full- inhibits secretion and close pyloric sphincter
Components of the gastric mucosal barrier
mucus
bicarbonate
tight junction
Stomach digestive functions- mechanical
mixing waves
pyloris filtering
gastric emptying
Stomach digestive functions- chemical
fundus stores food and gas
mixing
protein digestion
intoinisic factor
Pernicious anemia is
impaired absorption of vitamin B12
parietal cells are targeted by antibodies
Megoblastic Anemia are identifiable by
large nucleated red blood cell precursors
caused by deficiency or defective utilization of vitamin B12
Haptocorrin does what
binds B12 and protects from acidity
Haptocorrin is secreted by
gastric glands
Digestive functions of the small intestine
primary digestive organ
nearly all absorption
The key to small intestine digestion and absorption
surface area
Parts of the small intestine in order
duodenum
jejunum
ileum
Duodenum
shortest part of the small intestine
starts at pyloric sphincter
C shaped
Ampulla of Vater
marks the end of anterior/start of mid section
common vile duct and pancreatic duct meet
Middle section of the small intestine
Jejunum
Ileum is the
last part of the small intestine- joins cecum at ileocecal sphincter
largest- thicker, vascular, more folds
Three unique features of the Small Intestine
circular folds
villi
microvilli
Goblet cells produce
mucus
Paneth cells produce
lysosome
G Cells produce
gastrin
I Cells produce
Cholecystokinin CCK
K Cells produce
insulinotropic peptide
stimulates the release of insulin
M Cells produce
motilin
S Cells produce
secretin
Mechanical digestion in the SI includes
segmentation
peristalsis
gastrolienal reflex
Segmentation
constrictions that move with peristalsis
Gastrolienal Reflex
digestion in the stomach triggers segmentation
Gastrin stimulates ileal motility
The small intestine digests
proteins, carbs, lipids
and reabsorbs water
MALT stands for
Mucosa Associated Lymphoid Tissues
immune cells in the mucosa
