EXAM 1 review Flashcards
1
Q
What is the Mind-Brain Problem?
A
-It is the relationship between mental experience & brain activity
2
Q
What does your mental experience depend on?
A
-It depends on activity of a huge number of separate but interconnected cells
3
Q
What are the 4 categories of Behavior?
A
- Physiological
- Ontogenetic
- Evolutionary
- Functional
4
Q
What is the Physiological category of behavior?
A
-Activity of the brain & other organs
5
Q
What is the Ontogenetic category of behavior?
A
-Describes the development,origins, genetics
6
Q
What is the Evolutionary category of behavior?
A
-The history of behavior
7
Q
What is the Functional category of behavior?
A
-describes why we have the certain behavior
8
Q
What is Behavioral Neuroscience?
A
- It is the study of evolutionary, physiological, & developmental mechs of behavior and experience
- It has a strong emphasis on brain functioning
9
Q
What is Behavioral Nueroscience’s overall goal?
A
-To relate the issues of psychology to biology
10
Q
What are the 6/7 universal emotions?
A
-Anger, fear, disgust, surprise happiness, sadness, contempt
11
Q
What do the 6/7 Universal emotions convey?
A
-It conveys that there is a genetic contribution to facial expressions
12
Q
What are Ethics?
A
-They are a system of moral principles that govern the appropriate conduct for a person/group
13
Q
What are the 2 sides of Animal Research?
A
- Minimalists
- Abolitionists
14
Q
What is the Minimalist side of Animal Research?
A
-They believe in strict laws, the type of animal used& the amount of stress induced
15
Q
What is the Abolitionist side of Animal Research?
A
-They against research=believes that all animals have the same rights as humans & that animals cannot give informed consent
16
Q
Why are animals used in research in the first place?
A
- Because undelying mechs of behavior are similar=sheds light on humans
- Interested in studying their behavior for their own sake
- Some experiments don’t allow experimentation on humans=legal restrictions
17
Q
What are the 3 R’s of research?
A
- Reduction= using fewer animals
- Replacement=use of computer models
- Refinement= modifying the procedure to reduce pain & discomfort
18
Q
What must we consider when doing research on other animals?
A
- Cost/ Benefit ratio
- Justification of research considers the amount of benefit gained
19
Q
What are the 2 sides of the spectrum in terms of animal research?
A
- Deontological=Moral absolute & no harming animals
- Utilitarian=pragmatic ethics/consequences & benefits gained to human society
20
Q
What is the total number of neurons in the brain?
A
86 billion neurons
21
Q
What part of the brain has the most amount of neurons?
A
-The cerebellum= 70 billion neurons
22
Q
How many neurons does the Cerebral cortex & associated areas have?
A
12-15 billion neurons
23
Q
How many neurons are in the Spinal Chord?
A
1 billion neurons
24
Q
How big are neurons?
A
4-100 microns in diameter (.004-1mm)
25
What are the 2 kinds of cells?
- Neurons
| - Glia
26
What role do Glia cells play?
-They are cells in the Nervous System that function as support
27
What are the 5 types of Glia?
- Astrocytes
- Microglia
- Oligodendrocytes
- Swann Cells
- Radial Glia
28
What are the 2 roles of Astrocytes?
- Help synchronize activity of the axon=wraps around the presynaptic terminal & taking up chemicals released by the axon
- They also dilate blood vessels to bring more nutrients into brain areas that have more activity
29
What is the role of Microglia?
- Removal of waste material,viruses, fungi from the brain
| - Removal of dead/ dying & damaged neurons
30
since Oligodendrocytes & Swann cells have the same role, what set's them apart?
- Oligodendrocytes are located in the brain & spinal chord
- Swann cells are in the periphery of the body
31
What is the role of Oligodendrocytes & Swann cells?
-They build the myelin sheath that surrounds & insulate certain vertebrate axons
32
What is the role of Radial Glia cells?
-They guide the migration of neurons & the growth of their axons & dendrites during embryonic development
33
What is the definition of a Neuron?
They recieve & transmit info to other cells
34
What parts does a Neuron have?
-Axons, axon hillock, nucleus, soma, dendrites, myelin sheath, terminal buttons
35
What are the 2 types of neurons?
- Motor
| - Sensory
36
What are the key characteristics of Motor Neurons?
- The soma is on its spinal chord
| - It receives excitation from other neurons & conducts impulses along its axon to a muscle gland
37
What is the role of a Sensory Neuron?
-It is specialized at one end to be highly sensitive to a particular type of stimulation
38
What are the 4 major components of a Neuron?
-Dendrites, soma, axon, pre-synaptic terminals
39
What role do Dendrites play?
- They are branching fibers w/ surface lined w/ synaptic receptors that responsible for bringing info into the neuron
- the greater the surface area, the more info it can recieve
40
What do some Dendrites have?
-Dendritic Spines= branch out further= increases surface area of dendrite
41
What is the role of the Soma?
- It contains the nucleus, ribsomes, mitochondria
- Responsible for the metabolic work of a neuron
- Covered w/ synapses on its surface in many neurons
42
What are the key characteristics of the Axon?
- It is a thin fiber of neuron
- Has a myelin sheath= insulating material that has little gaps= Nodes of Ranvier
- Has presynaptic terminals at the end
43
What is the role of the Axon?
- Responsible for transmitting nerve impulses (info) towards other neurons, organs, muscles
- Its presynaptic terminals release chemicals to communicate w/ other neurons
44
What are the 3 different types of categories for Axons?
- Afferent
- Efferent
- Intrinsic/ Interneurons
45
What is the category of Afferent Axons?
-They bring information INTO a structure
46
What is the category of Efferent Axons?
-They carry info OUT of the structure
47
What is the category of Intrinsic/Interneurons?
-They have dendrites & axons completely contained in a single structure
48
What are key characteristics of the Myelin Sheath?
- It is an insulating material made of fats & proteins
| - It has gaps= Nodes of Ranvier
49
What is the role of the Myelin Sheath?
- It has gaps that regenerate the action potential by a chain of positively charged ions pushed along of the pervious segment
- Basically allows the message to get transferred to a neuron faster
50
What is Saltatory Conduction?
-It is the jumping of action potential from node to node
51
What is the role of Saltatory Conduction?
-It provides rapid conduction of impulses= conserves energy for the cell
52
What does Multiple Sclerosis have to do with the Myelin Sheath?
- Multiple Sclerosis is the disease in which the myelin sheath is destroyed
- This causes poor muscle coordination, vision impairments, fatigue
- Theres no cure= must be focused on prevention
53
What determines the neuron's connection to other neurons?
- The shape of the neuron
| - The function is also related to the shape of the neuron
54
What is the Blood-Brain Barrier?
-It is a mech that surrounds the brain & blocks most chemicals for entering like viruses & bacteria
55
What CANNOT cross the Blood-Brain Barrier?
-Most large molecules & electrically charged ones
56
What kind of molecules CAN cross the Blood-Brain Barrier?
-Small uncharged molecules= Oxygen & Carbon dioxide
57
How does the Blood-Brain Barrier work?
-It uses Active Transport= protein mediated process that uses energy to pump chemicals from the blood into the brain
58
What chemicals are brought into the brain via Active Transport?
-Glucose, certain hormones, amino acids, few vitamins
59
What kind of difficulties would the Blood-Brain Barrier pose?
-It can be difficult to allow certain chemicals to pass like chemotherapy drugs
60
What do vertebrate neurons depend on?
- Glucose= 25%
| - A steady supply of oxygen= 20%
61
What vitamin does the body need to use glucose?
-Thiamine
62
What is the result of Thiamine deficiency?
- Death of neurons
| - Present in Korskoffs syndrome= result of chronic alchoholism & marked by memory impairment
63
What is the language of Neurons?
-Electrical message that is transmitted down the axon of a neuron
64
What is the range of speed of a nerve impulse?
1-100 meters/sec or 268 mph
65
What kind of membrane does a neuron have?
-A selectively permeable membrane= Sodium-potassium pump
66
What chemicals pass freely through the neuron membrane?
-Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Chloride
67
What are the key characteristics of the Sodium-Potassium pump?
- It is a protein complex
| - It pumps 3 sodium ions out while drawing in 2 potassium ions into the cell via ATP
68
What is the role of the Sodium-Potassium pump?
-It helps maintain the electrical gradient
69
What is the resting potential for a neuron?
- 70mV
| - The inside is slightly more negative than outside
70
What does a neuron do at rest?
-It maintains its electrical gradient=polarization
71
What is an Electrical Gradient?
-It is the difference of charge between the inside & outside of the cell
72
When does Depolarization occur?
-When sodium ions go into the cell= increasing mV
73
When does Repolarization occur?
-When potassium ions go out of the cell= decreasing mV
74
When does Hyperpoloarization occur?
-When the action potential dips below the threshold level
75
What occurs when the membrane is at rest?
-The sodium channels are closed
76
When do the Sodium channels open?
-When there is enough stimulation in the nerve cell= positive charged sodium ions rush in= nerve impulse occurs
77
How is the neuron returned to resting state?
-by opening the potassium channels= the potassium ions flow out due to concentration gradient
78
What happens after an impulse is fired?
-The neuron enters a refractory period= rests until the production of another action potential
79
What are the 2 types of Refractory periods?
- Absolute
| - Relative
80
What is the Absolute Refractory Period?
-It is the first part where the membrane cannot produce an action potential
81
What is the Relative Refractory Period?
-Second part in which it takes a stronger than usual stimulus to trigger the action potential
82
What is Hyperpolarization?
-INCREASING difference (polarization) between electrical charge
83
What is Depolarization?
-DECREASING the difference (polarization) towards zero
84
What are the Nerve-Impulse rules?
- All-or-None law= amplitude & velocity of an action potential are independent of the intensity of the stimulus that started it
- Action potential are equal in the speed within a given neuron
85
What are the characteristics of Local Neurons?
- They have shorter axons= exchanges info w/ only neurons close by
- They also don't produce an action potential
86
What happens to Local Neurons when they are stimulated?
-They produce graded potentials= membrane potentials that vary in magnitude & don't follow the all-or-nothing law
87
What do local anesthetics do?
-They block the sodium channels=prevent action potentials from occurring
88
What is a Synapse?
- AKA Synaptic Cleft
- It is the specialized gap between neurons
- It is hella fast= faster than .01 microsecs
89
How big is a Synapse?
20-30 nm in width
90
How many synapses do we have?
100 trillion
91
How do neurons communicate?
-By transmitting chemicals at the synapses
92
What are key characteristics of Electrical Synapses?
- They are faster than all chemical transmissions
- They have a gap junction= direct contact of the membranes of neurons
- Depolarization occurs in both cells= 2 neurons acting as one
93
What are the 2 types of synapsis a neuron can be?
- Presynaptic
| - Postsynaptic
94
What is the role of a Presynaptic neuron?
-It is the neuron that delivers the synaptic transmission
95
What is the role of a Postsynaptic neuron?
-The neuron that recieves the message
96
What are PSP's?
- Post Synaptic Potentials
| - come in 2 types
97
What are the 2 types of PSP's?
- Excitatory Post Synaptic Potential= EPSP
| - Inhibitory Post Synaptic Potential= IPSP
98
What is the role of EPSP's?
- They are graded depolarization
- The cumulative effects are the basis for temporal & spatial summation
- Increases the number of action potentials above the spontaneous firing rate
99
What is the role of IPSP's?
- Temporary hyperpolarization of a membrane
- Supresses excitation when input of K and CL= makes neurons less likely to fire
- Decreases the number of action potentials below the spontaneous firing rate
100
What are the 2 inputs a synapse can have?
- Temporal= 1 person texting you continuously
| - Spatial= a text from several people
101
What does the likelihood of an action potential depend on?
-The ratio of IPSP's & EPSP's at a given moment
102
What are Neurotransmitters?
-Chemicals that travel across the synapse & allows communication between neurons
103
What's the difference between smaller & larger neurotransmitters?
- Smaller ones= synthesized in presynaptic terminal & help there for release
- Larger ones= synthesized in the soma & transported down the axon
104
What are Synaptic Vessicles?
-They are tiny spherical packets of drugs located at the presynaptic terminal
105
How many neurotransmitters do individual neurons release?
20 or more
106
What are the 6 classes of neurotransmitters?
-Amino acids, modified animoacids, monoamines,neuropeptides, purines, gases
107
What is in the Amino Acid class of neurotransmitters?
-Glutamate, GABA, Glycine, Asparate
108
What is in the modified amino acid class of neurotransmitters?
Acetylcholine
109
What is in the monoamine class of neurotransmitters?
-Seratonin, dopamine, epinephrine
110
What is in the neuropeptide class of neurotransmitters?
-Endorphins, substance P, neuropeptide Y
111
What is in the purine class of neurotransmitters?
-ATP, adenosine
112
What is in the gasses class of neurotransmitters?
-nitrous oxide
113
What are the 7 major events in transmission of a synapse?
1) neuron synthesizes chemicals that serve as neurotransmitters
2) action potentials travel down the axon
3) released molecules diffuse across synaptic cleft & attach to receptors (lock & key)= alters activity of postsynaptic neuron
4) neurotransmitter separates from their receptor
5) Reuptake= neurotransmitters taken back into the presynaptic neuron for recycling/ diffusing away
6) post synaptic cells may send reverse messages to slow down the release of neurotransmitters by presynaptic cells
7) negative feedback sites respond to retrograde transmitter or presynaptic's own transmitter
114
What is the difference between an Agonist & Antagonist?
- An Agonist enhances the effects of a drug
| - An Antagonist blocks the effects
115
What are Hormones?
-They are chemicals secreted by a gland or other cells & is transported to other organs by the blood & alters the activities there
116
What gland produces Hormones?
-Endocrine gland
117
What is Phrenology?
-The process of relating skull anatomy to behavior
118
What is an Ablation?
-It is the removal of a brain area
119
What is a lesion?
-The damage to a brain area thats purposefully done for research
120
What is a Sterotatix instrument?
-It is used to damage the structures of the interior of the brain
121
What is the role of TMS?
- Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
- Intense magnetic field to temporarily de-activate neurons= allows researchers to study behavior in active & non-active areas
122
What are Meninges?
-They are membranes that surround the brain & spinal chord, they also contain receptors
123
What are the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex?
-Frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal
124
What is the role of the frontal lobe?
-It contains the pre-frontal cortex & pre-central gyrus
125
What is the role of the pre-central gyrus?
- AKA Primary motor cortex
| - responsible for control of fine motor movement
126
What is the role of the prefrontal cortex?
- It is the integration center for all sensory info & other areas of the cortex
- reponsible for higher functionings= abstract thinking/planning & our ability to remember recent events (working memory)
127
What is the role of the Parietal Lobe?
- Contains the postcentral gyrus
- Is responsible for processing & integrating info about eye, head, body positions via messages from muscles & joints
128
What is the role of the postcentral gyrus?
- AKA Primary Somatosensory Cortex
| - It is the primary target for touch sensations & info from muscle stretch & joint receptors
129
What is the role of the Occipital Lobe?
- AKA Striate Cortex/ Primary Visual Cortex
| - It is responsible for visual input
130
What is the role of the Temporal Lobe?
- Target for auditory info & essential for processing spoken language
- Also responsible for complex aspects of vision, movement, some emotional/motivational behaviors
131
What are the 2 subsystems of the Nervous System?
- Central nervous system
| - Peripheral nervous system
132
What does the central nervous system consist of?
-Brain & Spinal Chord
133
What is the Dorsal Root Ganglia?
-they are cell bodies of sensory neurons that are clustered outside the spinal chord
134
What is the spinal chord made of?
-Grey matter & White matter
135
What is the grey matter of the spinal chord?
-it is located at the center for the spinal cord & densely packed w/ cell bodies & dendrites
136
What is the white matter of the spinal cord?
-It is mostly myelinated axons that carries info from grey matter to brain or other areas
137
What is the Peripheral nervous system comprised of?
-Somatic & autonomic
138
What is the role of the somatic nervous system?
- They convey sensory info to CNS
| - & transmit messages for motor movement from the CNS to the body
139
What is the role of the Autonomic nervous system?
- it sends & recieves messages to regulate the automatic behaviors of the body (heart rate, breathing)
- It is divided into 2 subsystems
140
What are the 2 subsystems of the Autonomic nervous system?
-Sympathetic & Parasympathetic
141
What is the role of the Sympathetic nervous system?
- it is the network of nerves that prepares the organs for rigorous activites= fight or flight response
- It mainly uses norepinephrine as neurotransmitter & later metabolizes to epinephrine (adrenaline)
142
What is the role fo the Parasympathetic nervous system?
- facilitiates vegetative, non emergency responses
- Dominant during our relaxed states
- Acetylcholine is released as neurotransmitter
143
What are the 3 major divisions of the brain?
- Hindbrain
- midbrain
- forebrain
144
What is the role of the hindbrain?
-it consits of the medulla (vital reflexes), pons (arousal), cerebellum (regulate motor movement & balance)
145
What does the midbrain consist of?
- Tectum= roof of midbrain
- Superior & inferior colliculus= processes sensory info
- Tagmentum= contains nuclei for cranial nerves & part of reticular formation
- Substrantia Nigra= gives rise to dopamine-containing pathway= readiness of movement
146
What is the role of the forebrain?
- consists of 2 hemispheres
- each side recieves info & controls the opposite side of the body
- joined by corpus callosum & interior commissure
