Exam #1 Chapters 1 and 4 Flashcards
What is “gross anatomy”
aka “macroscopic” anatomy, studies large, visible structures
Regional anatomy is study of
body areas
Systemic anatomy is the study of
organ systems
What is a normal range or set point?
A value that measures whether the body is in homeostasis. For example, 98.6 degrees is the sets point for body temperature.
Four main vital signs are
• 1. Temperature
• 2. Blood pressure
• 3. Pulse rate
• 4. Respiratory rate
What is autoregulation?
It is INTRINSIC. It is an automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to some
environmental change
What is Extrinsic regulation?
• Extrinsic – “external or outside”
• Responses controlled by nervous and endocrine systems
Two major Mechanisms Used to
Maintain Homeostasis
Negative Feedback
• The response of the effector negates the stimulus
• Body is brought back into homeostasis
Positive Feedback
• The response of the effector increases change of the
stimulus
• Body is moved away from homeostasis
• Normal range is lost
• Used to speed up processes
Supine (anatomical position)
Lying down, face up
Prone (anatomical position)
Lying down, face down
Proximal (anatomical position) means
towards the ATTACHED BASE
Ex: The thigh is proximal to the foot
Caudal (anatomical position) means
The tail or coccyx
Ex: The hips are caudal to the waist
3 functions of body cavities
- Protect organs from
accidental shocks - Permit changes in size and
shape of internal organs - Allow organs to be
separated and isolated from
each other
2 cavities in the Dorsal Body Cavity
- Cranial cavity
- Vertebral cavity
Three cavities in the Ventral Body Cavity
- Thoracic cavity
Diaphragm divides - Abdominal cavity
- Pelvic cavity
What lines body cavities and covers
organs?
Serous membranes
2 layers of serous membranes
Parietal layer: lines cavity – Space between two layers
creates another “cavity. Filled with serous fluid!!!
Visceral layer: covers organ
The spleen would be found in what region/quadrant
Left hypochondriac region
Left Upper Quadrant
The appendix and urinary bladder would be found in what quadrant/region
Hypogastric region
(hypo meaning “below” and “gastric” meaning stomach)
Appendix would be RLQ or Right Lower Quadrant
Urinary bladder is in the middle of both Lower Quadrants
The gallbladder would be found in what region/quadrant
Umbilical region
Right Upper Quadrant
What cavity contains reproductive organs, rectum,
and bladder
Pelvic Cavity
What is the chamber within the abdominopelvic cavity called?
Peritoneal cavity, contains the parietal and visceral peritoneum.
– Parietal peritoneum: lines the
internal body wall
– Visceral peritoneum: covers the
organs
What chamber contains the digestive organs?
Abdominal cavity
Cavities and Organs of Thoracic Cavity
Thoracic Cavity
Pleural cavities (R&L)
– Contains lungs (R&L)
Visceral Pleura
– Pleural Cavity
Parietal Pleural
Mediastinum
– Upper portion filled with blood
vessels, trachea, esophagus, and
thymus
Pericardial cavity
– Contains the heart
• Visceral pericardium
– Pericardial cavity
• Parietal Pericardium
identify
identify
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Identify
Compare and contrast the fields of anatomy and physiology.
Anatomy is the study of structure.
Physiology is the study of function.
What is the difference between microscopic and macroscopic anatomy.
Describe the levels of organization of the human body and be able to arrange them according to complexity.
- chemical level
- cell level
- tissue level
- organ level
- organ system level
- organism level
List all eleven organ systems of the human body and be able to recognize or list the components and functions of each (only the ones discussed in class)
integumentary system
skeletal system
musculoskeletal system
nervous system
endocrine system
cardiovascular system
lymphatic system
respiratory system
digestive system
urinary system
reproductive system (male and female)
The pancreas can be found in two systems; which are they?
Digestive system and Endocrine system
What function do the respiratory system and the renal system have in common?
pH balance or acid/base balance
Which is the only organ system that can be removed and not kill you!
Reproductive System
What is a major function of the skin that involves sunlight.
Vitamin D production. When exposed to ultraviolet light, the skin produces a molecule that can transformed into the hormonal form of vitamin D, and important regulator of calcium homeostasis.
Integument is another name for the ________.
Skin
What is the primary function of the endocrine system?
Secretion of hormones the primary function. This regulatory system also influences metabolism, growth, reproduction, and many other functions.
How is the lymphatic system important in regulating interstitial fluid?
Lymphatic capillaries collect fluid from interstitial spaces of the body, becoming lymph. Lymph passes through the lymphatic vessels back to the blood.
Define the terms: Homeostasis, Set point, Autoregulation,, Intrinsic regulation, Extrinsic regulation
Homestasis: maintenance of a constant stable environment within the body
Set point: an ideal normal value
Autoregulation:
Intrinsic regulation
Extrinsic regulation
List and define the three components of a feedback loop.
Receptor
Control center
effector
Name the four primary types of tissues and give a brief description on each.
- epithelial tissue
- connective tissue
- muscle tissue
- nervous tissue
How are epithelial tissues classified.
- number of cell layers
- shape of cells at apical surface or superficial cells.
What are the major characteristics of epithelial tissues?
Epithelial tissue will line body cavities and hollow organs and it covers body surfaces that are exposed to the
environment. The cells in an epithelial tissue are tightly packed together and there is little space between
them. Because epithelial tissues are located on free surfaces, they must be attached to the underlying tissues.
- Form the following list of epithelial tissues:
a. Describe the characteristics of the tissue
b. What is the primary function of the tissue
c. Where is the tissue found in the body. - Simple squamous 2. Simple cuboidal 3. Simple columnar 4. Pseudostratified ciliated columnar 5. Transitional 6. Stratified squamous (keratinized and non-keratinized) 7. Glandular
How are epithelial tissues nourished?
Epithelial tissues are avascular (lack a blood supply), so nutrients must move to these tissues’ cells from adjacent connective tissues. If well nourished, epithelial cells can easily regenerate themselves. An example of this process is the skin: Superficial skin cells are dead from lack of nutrition, but the deepest skin cells are well nourished. The superficial dead cells are continually being rubbed off with everyday activity. This is usually not a problem; however, as the lost cells are replaced by underlying cells that continually divide and push upward. As these cells move upward, they are removed from their nutrient supply, die, and slough off the body just like the ones they replaced.
Why are epithelial tissues more likely to become cancerous?
Because they have a high rate of mitosis.
What characteristics do collagen fibers give a connective tissue?
Strength.
What characteristics do elastic fibers give a connective tissue?
The ability to stretch and snap back.
What is a lacunae? Which types of tissues are lacunae found in?
Lacunae is found in bone and cartilage. In cartilage, lacunae is what houses the chondrocytes. In bone, lacunae is a small space containing an osteocyte.
What is the function of a goblet cell and which epithelial tissues are they commonly found in.
Goblet cells secrete mucous and they are most common in Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium and Simple Columnar Epithelium
What are the different types of connective tissues?
Connective Tissue Proper
Loose CT
Dense CT
Fluid Connective Tissue
Blood
Lymph
Supporting Connective Tissue
Cartilage
Bone
List the general characteristics of connective tissues?
Specialized cells located in a
Matrix composed of
1. Extracellular protein fibers
2. Extracellular ground substance
3. Majority of tissue volume
4. Determines specialized function
For each of the following, describe the structure, function and a location in the body:
b. areolar or loose c. adipose d. reticular e. dense regular f. dense irregular g. elastic cartilage h. hyaline cartilage i. bone
j. blood
k. fibrocartilage l. elastic connective
pg 126 text
areolar: cells are fibroblasts, macrophages, and lymphocytes. loose packing, support. found throughout body: dermis, between muscles, surrounding blood vessels.
adipose: adipocytes. insulation, energy storage, protection of organs. around kidneys, hypodermis.
reticular: fine network of irregularly oriented reticular fibers. Network-like support/structure. Spleen, kidney, lymph node, bone marrow.
dense regular: Dense regular connective tissue consists of densely packed collagen fibers - all oriented in the same direction. Between the collagen fibers -scattered fibroblasts. Tendons, most ligaments, aponeurosis.
dense irregular: collagen fibers that are irregularly arranged, this allows the tissue to withstand pulling forces from many directions. Scattered fibroblasts. Found in dermis, periosteum, perichondrium, organ capsules.
elastic cartilage: elastic fibers. more flexible than hyaline but rigid. snap back. external ears.
hyaline cartilage: collage fibers evenly throughout, chondrocytes in lacunae. Allow long bones to grow, rigid and flexible. Trachea, ribs, nose. Strong and smooth yet flexible articulating cartilage too.
fibrocartilage: more collagen in thick bundles. kinda flexible, good for pressure and connecting structures subject to great pressure. intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, articular discs, knee pads.
bone: osteons or Haversian systems. Osteons have a
significant amount of matrix with few spaces. Central canal at center of osteon. The canals run the length of the bone and contain blood vessels and nerves. The smaller spaces in the osteon are called lacunae. The cells within the lacunae are osteocytes.
blood: blood cells, fluid matrix. transports gases, hormones, nutrients, waste products, protects body from infections, temp regulation. within blood vessels.
What is extracellular matix?
protein fibers
ground substance
What are the three types of fibers found in connective tissues?
elastic
collagen
reticular
FIBERS
Name the specialized cells associated with each of the connective tissues.
- Adipose
- Areolar (loose)
- Reticular
- Dense Regular
- Dense Irregular
- Dense Bone
- Hyaline cartilage
- Elastic cartilage
10.Fibrocartilage
11.Blood
Which connective tissues are avascular?
Cartilage, Epithelial tissue
How does a poor blood supply affect the tissue?
Body tissues rely on a steady supply of blood to deliver oxygen and nutrients. although epidermis is avascular, the DERMIS is rich with blood vessels.
What is the function of keratin?
Provides protection against water loss from the body.
Which type of general tissue produces keratin?
Epithelial tissue
Several different types of intracellular connections can be found within epithelial tissue, be sure to understand the function of each and know where they would be found.
Desmosomes: disk-shaped regions of cell membrane;
often found in areas that are subjected to stress.• Contain especially adhesive glycoproteins.
• Intermediate protein filaments extend into cytoplasm of
cells.
• Hemidesmosomes: half of a desmosome; attach
epithelial cells to basement membrane.
• Tight Junctions: hold cells together, form permeability
barrier.
• Adhesion belt: composed of glycoproteins that act as
a weak glue to hold cells together; found just below
tight junction.
• Gap Junctions: protein channels aid intercellular
communication.• Allows ions and small molecules to pass through.
• Coordinate function of cardiac and smooth muscl
Understand the significance of the following epithelial specializations: cilia, microvilli and goblet cells.
Cilia- motile extensions that move substances
across the surface of the cell. For example mucus
in the respiratory system
Microvilli- extensions of the cell membrane that
increase cell surface area and allow for greater
absorption. For example, the lining of the small
intestine to absorb nutrients
of Exocrine Glands
of Unicellular glands• Single cell
• For example, goblet (mucus-producing) cells
Synthesize and secrete mucus onto the free surface.• Move mucus (or fluid) that contains foreign particles over the free surface and from passages.
How is a simple epithelial tissue different from a stratified epithelial tissue?
Simple epithelium
• single layer of cells
Stratified epithelium
• several layers of cells
What are the common shapes of epithelial cells?
• Squamous epithelia
• thin and flat
• Cuboidal epithelia
• square shaped
• Columnar epithelia
• tall, slender rectangles
Define mesothelium and endothelium
Simple squamous epithelium that lines walls of body cavities/organs is called mesothelium. Endothelium is simple squamous that lines blood vessels.
What are the 3 basic components found within connective tissue?
What are the three general categories for connective tissue?
Connective Tissue Proper
Supporting Connective Tissue
Fluid Connective Tissue
List the 3 types of loose connective tissue.
areolar, reticular, adipose
Where are mucous membranes found?
found lining cavities and canals that open to outside of body. Ex: digestive, respiratory, excretory, and reproductive passages. Consists of epithelial cells, basement membrane, thick layer of loose CT called lamina propria. Many have mucous glands (unicellular like goblet cells and multicellular too). Lines nasal passages, inflamed mucous membrane is a runny nose. Lines small intestine.
Where are synovial membrane found?
found lining freely movable joints. made of only CT. produce synovial fluid, very slippery (because it consists of hyaluronic acid).
Where are serous membranes found?
can be found lining cavities that do not open to the exterior of body. NO GLANDS but secrete serous fluid, protecting internal organs from friction, holding them in place, and acting as barriers to prevent large amounts of fluid from accumulating in serous cavities. Consists of mesothelium, basement membrane, delicate layer of loose CT.
Examples: pericardial, pleural, peritoneal cavities.
Name the two categories of fluid connective tissues.
“Blood Connective Tissue”
and
Lymph
Name the two types of supportive connective tissues.
Supportive or supporting connective tissue, 2 types:
“Cartilage Connective Tissue”
“Bone Connective Tissue”
What is the major difference between fibrocartilage and elastic cartilage?
Difference between fibrocartilage and elastic cartilage is the elasticity. Elastic cartilage has elastic fibers in the matrix, allowing for way more FLEXIBILITY. Fibrocartilage is somewhat flexible, but its thick bundles allow it to connect structures and withstand great pressure.
Locations
Fibrocartilage: intervertebral disks, symphysis pubis
Elastic: External ear
Name each of the specialized cells in blood and their functions.
Specialized cells in blood are:
Red blood cells
White blood cells
Platelets (cell fragments)
What are the substances produced by cells that are tissue glue?
pg.112
Book says “weak glue” would be adhesion belts. They’re found just below the tight junction. Not as strong as desmosomes. Desmosomes could also be considered glue, but stronger
Desmosomes are glycoprotein connections between cells that form a relatively strong adhesive. They bind cells together. Found in epithelial tissue that is subjected to stress, such as stratified squamous epithelial tissue (example, epidermis).
Hemidesmosome (“hemi” means “half”) is a half a desmosome, and attaches epithelial cells to basement membrane.
Describe the different types of gland shapes.
-Unicellular glands
Some exocrine glands are composed of single cell. Ex. goblet cells are unicellular glands that secrete mucus.
-Multicellular glands
Exocrine glands composed of many cells. Multicellular exocrine glands classified according to ducts/secretory regions.
Simple glands
Single, non branched duct.
Compound glands
Multiple branched ducts.
Tubular glands (can be simple or compound)
“tubular” shaped secretory regions (can be straight or coiled though)
Acinar or alveolar glands (can be simple or compound)
“sac-like” shaped secretory regions
Tubuloacinar glands (combo of the above two glands) aka tubuloalveolar
What is the major difference between an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland.
major difference between endocrine and exocrine gland are
THE PRESENCE OF DUCTS.
Exocrine have ducts because they have maintained an open contact with the epithelium from which it developed.
Endocrine glands have no ducts. Instead they have blood vessels and release hormones into the bloodstream.
Define merocrine(eccrine), apocrine and holocrine glands by the methods that they secrete. Give an example of each.
pg 115 in text
***all 3 are EXOCRINE glands
Merocrine (aka Eccrine)
Simple: Vesicles empty their contents into the duct through exocytosis.
Detailed: glands are exocrine glands that involve the release of secretory products by EXOCYTOSIS. Merocrine secretion is used by water-producing sweat glands and the exocrine portion of the pancreas. “Mero” possibly means “pure” in Latin (maybe for pure water?)
Apocrine glands
Simple: A portion of the cell containing secretory products is pinched off in the cell.
Detailed: are exocrine glands involve the release of secretory products as pinched off fragments of the gland cells. Ex: milk from mammary glands release milk by combo of merocrine AND apocrine secretion.
Holocrine glands
Simple: Entire cells are shed by the gland and become part of the secretion.
Detailed: Shedding of entire cells. Products accumulate in the cytoplasm of each epithelial cell, the cell ruptures and dies, and the entire cell becomes part of secretion. Holocrine secretion is used by the SEBACEOUS (OIL) GLANDS OF THE SKIN.
(Of CT proper) Dense Connective Tissues (3)
tightly packed with high # of collagen or elastic fibers
Dense regular CT
Dense irregular CT
Elastic tissue
(Fluid Connective Tissue) Blood CT
Watery matrix of dissolved proteins.
Carry formed elements: erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets.
(Of Supporting CT) Hyaline Cartilage CT
Stiff, flexible support
Reduces friction between bones
Found in synovial joints, rib tips, sternum, trachea (windpipe)
Fetal skeleton
(Of Supporting CT) Elastic Cartilage CT
Supportive but bends EASILY
Found in external ear and epiglottis
(Of Supporting CT) Bone or Osseous CT
Calcified calcium salt deposits make it STRONG!
Resists shattering (flexible collagen)
Bone cells called osteocytes
Osteocytes arranged around “canals” within matrix
Small channels through matrix (canaliculi) access blood supply
