Brain and Nervous System

Question 1

Where is the arbor vitae located and what is its function?

Answer 1

The arbor vitae lies in the center of the cerebellum and is critical in the coordination of the arms, legs and any actions requiring hand-eye coordination. The arbor vitae is made of white matter that transmits information throughout the brain.

Question 2

What are the two major structure of the midbrain AKA mesencephalon?

Answer 2

Tectum and tegmentum.

The tectum contain the corpora quadrigemina.
The tegmentum contains the red nuclei, cerebral peduncles, and the substantia nigra.

Question 3

List the primary functions of the cerebral cortex in each of the lobes in the cerebrum: frontal lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe and the insula.

Answer 3

Frontal lobe: voluntary motor function, motivation, aggression, sense of smell, mood. Personality and decision making
Temporal lobe: receives input for smell/hearing, plays impt role in memory. Abstract thought and judgement.
Parietal lobe: receiving most sensory info (not smell, hearing, taste, and vision - so NOT the special senses).
Occipital lobe: receives visual input.
Insula: receives taste information.

Question 4

What are the nuclei found in the pons. Describe their functions.

Answer 4

Pontine nuclei, which relay info from the cerebrum to the cerebellum.

Pons also has nuclei for cranial nerves 5 (trigeminal), 6 (abducens), 7 (facial) and 8 (vestibulocochlear).

Question 5

What is an ascending and descending nerve tract?

Answer 5

Sensory info from the periphery is transmitted via action potentials along sensory pathways or TRACTS, to the brain.

Ascending nerve tracts transmit conscious and unconscious sensory inputs. Names indicate their origin/termination. First half of name indicates origin while second half indicates its termination. Usually begin with “spino” because they originate in the spinal cord. Excellent chart pg. 476 and 477.

Descending pathways “descend” from brain to spinal cord. Through these routes, cerebral cortex may reduce the conscious perception of sensations such as pain.

Question 6

Name the 5 cranial nerves associated with the medulla oblongata.

Answer 6

cranial nerves VIII (vestibulocochlear - it is ONE HALF OF THIS CRANIAL NERVE, either the vestibulo part or the cochlear part), IX (glossopharyngeal), X (vagus), XI ( accessory), and XII (hypoglossal)

Question 7

What is the importance of the gyri on the surface of the cerebrum?

Answer 7

Gyri greatly increase the surface area of the cortex of the cerebrum.

Question 8

Name the major nuclei found in the medulla oblongata and describe their function?

Answer 8

The gracile nuclei (is one of the dorsal column nuclei that participate in the sensation of fine touch and proprioception) of the lower body and legs and cuneate nuclei (cuneate nucleus receives somatosensory information from the upper half of the body and arms) are located in the posterior aspect of the medulla; The nuclei of cranial nerves XII, X, IX, and part of VIII are located in the medulla

Question 9

Describe the characteristics of the blood brain barrier and the blood cerebral spinal fluid barrier.

Question 10

What are arachnoid villi and arachnoid granulations. What are their functions

Answer 10

Arachnoid granulations (or arachnoid villi) are small protrusions of the arachnoid (the thin second layer covering the brain) through the dura (the thick outer layer). They protrude into the venous sinuses of the brain, and allow cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to exit the brain, and enter the blood stream.

Question 11

What is the purpose of the ventricles within the brain?

Answer 11

The ventricles within the brain are an interconnected series of cavities that bathe the brain with CSF. CSF fills all the open spaces of the CNS, including the ventricles, the subarachnoid space of the brain and spinal cord, and the central canal of the spinal cord. Not only does CSF bathe the brain and spinal cord, it provides a protective cushion around the CNS, allows the brain to float within the cranial cavity, and protects the brain against the shock of rapid head movements. Also provides some nutrients to CNS tissues.

Question 12

What is found filling the subarachnoid space?

Answer 12

Between the arachnoid mater and the Pia mater is the SUBARACHNOID space, which contains strands of arachnoid mater and the blood vessels supplying the brain. This space is also filled with CSF.

Question 13

What is the choroid plexus? Where is it found? What is its function?

Answer 13

A choroid plexus is a structure made from specialized ependymal cells and blood vessels. These structures are located within certain regions of the ventricles. They secrete CSF, which flows through the ventricles of the brain. A choroid plexus is found in each ventricle of the brain.

Question 14

What are the names of the dural folds? Where are they located? What is their function?

Answer 14

Dural folds are tough CT partitions that extend INTO the major brain fissures. They help hold the brain in place within the skull and keep it from moving around too freely. Largest of the dural folds is the FALX CEREBRI which is located in the longitudinal fissure that separates the L and R hemispheres. Two other important dural folds are the TENTORIUM CEREBELLI which lies between the cerebrum and the cerebellum. Last, the FALX CEREBELLI, which lies between the two cerebellar hemispheres.

“The Dural folds like to hold” - help hold brain in place

Question 15

How big is the human brain?

Answer 15

The human brain is roughly the size of two clenched fists and weighs about 3 pounds, 2% of body mass.

Question 16

Describe how the PNS and CNS work together in obtaining, processing and acting on a stimulus.

Answer 16

Your peripheral nervous system is the network of nerves that transmit (carry) signals from all over your body to your spinal cord, which is part of your central nervous system.
Your central nervous system is your brain and spinal cord. It receives and interprets nerve signals from your peripheral nervous system. Your brain integrates these messages (inputs) to inform everything you do, including how you move, feel, behave and think. Some reactions are reflexive, happening below the level of consciousness, like moving your hand away from a hot stove.
When a nerve sends an electrical impulse:

The signal travels down the axon, the “wiring” connection of the nerve.
The message converts to a chemical signal at the end of the nerve called the axon hillock.
The chemical releases molecules called neurotransmitters, into a space that bridges the space between one neuron to another. These bridges are called synapses.
The neurotransmitter binds to a receptor on the muscle or connecting neuron and converts to another electrical signal.
Electrical signals travel up the length of that next neuron.
The process repeats until the message reaches its target.

Question 17

How are the brain and the endocrine similar?

Answer 17

Both are regulatory systems. The brain uses electrical signals while the endocrine system uses chemical signals.

Question 18

What could lesions in the limbic system cause?

Answer 18

many individual components comprise the limbic system, all of which play specific roles in the greater whole of the functionality of the limbic system. Emotion, memory, and social processing are essential functions when considering the whole of human health. Generally, clinical disorders involving bilateral lesions of individual parts of the limbic system are rare. However, in much more prevalent disorders, such as schizophrenia, asymmetry and cortical volume loss of limbic system components is common. Possible causes: schizophrenia, memory loss, dementia, epilepsy.

Question 19

What are the generalized functions of the cranial nerves?

Answer 19

Transmit and really information to and from the brain, much like spinal nerves do, but they skip that step altogether and relay info DIRECTLY to the brain. May have more than one function depending on nerve (sensory, somatic, and/or parasympathetic).

Question 20

Which part of the nervous system gets the body ready for rest?

Answer 20

Parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system of the PNS.

Question 21

Which part of the nervous system gets the body ready for activity (fight or f light)?

Answer 21

Sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system of the PNS.

Question 22

What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system?

Answer 22

2 divisions of the autonomic nervous system are the sympathetic division (fight or flight) and the parasympathetic division (rest and digest).

Question 23

What is the function of the midbrain?

Answer 23

Midbrain serves important functions in motor movement, particularly movements of the eye, and in auditory and visual processing. Contains the tectum (corpora quadrigemina - superior and inferior colliculi), tegmentum (red nuclei, cerebral peduncles, substantia nigra). pg 443-444

Question 24

Where does alcohol affect the brain?

Answer 24

Alcohol affects the brain at the Blood-Brain-Barrier. Ethanol travels to the brain within the arteries that lie between the skull and the brain itself. These arteries branch out into capillaries, which dive deep into the brain tissue. Ethanol must pass through these capillaries to reach all cells (e.g., neurons) in the brain. For most molecules, it’s not so easy to get into the brain. There is a barrier called the blood-brain-barrier that protects the brain from foreign substances that could potentially harm this highly specialized organ. Unfortunately for the brain, there is no barrier for ethanol. Ethanol crosses the blood-brain-barrier very easily (Diffusion, type of diffusion is filtration). This is due to its chemical characteristics—although it is somewhat polar, it is also lipophilic, and so it mixes easily with the fat in the membrane.

Question 25

What is the function of the cerebellum?

Answer 25

Cerebellum or "little brain" - function involves controlling posture, locomotion, and fine motor coordination, thereby producing smooth, flowing movements. If you are planning, practicing, or learning complex movements, you can be sure your cerebellum is responsible. Cerebellar cortex has more neurons than entire cerebral cortex. Contains Purkinje cells (largest cells in CNS, receiving about 200,000 synapses from passing fibers - they are inhibitory neurons). Pg. 444

Question 26

What is the difference between somatic and autonomic nervous systems?

Answer 26

Somatic nervous system is the VOLUNTARY division of the MOTOR division (conscious control of moving your skeleton). The autonomic nervous system is the INVOLUNTARY division of the MOTOR division. Regulates activities without our conscious control such as contractions of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and secretions of certain glands. Ex: HR increases when hear a loud, unexpected sound. ANS has two sets of neurons. Pg 372 in textbook.

Question 27

What is a mixed nerve?

Answer 27

Mixed nerves contain both sensory and motor neurons, so they can transmit information in both directions. They have both afferent and efferent functions. Example: spinal nerves and some cranial nerves are mixed nerves.

Question 28

What are the types of nerve fibers found in the PNS?

Answer 28

Three nerve fiber types: type A, type B, and type C. PNS nerve fibers are mostly going to be type A, which are large diameter, myelinated axons that induct action potentials quickly. Motor neurons supplying skeletal muscles and most sensory neurons have type A fibers. Pg 391 textbook

Question 29

Where is the reticular formation and what is its function?

Answer 29

The reticular formation is scattered throughout the brainstem. It controls many brainstem activities, including motor control (posture), pain perception, rhythmic contractions (swallowing, breathing, HR), and the sleep-wake cycle. This system is an interconnected system of loosely packed nuclei scattered through brainstem. Play roles in arousal and awareness (consciousness). Contains the RAS - reticular activating system which is what your anesthesiologist gets paid to mess with)

Question 30

Is the brain stem involved in higher thought processes?

Answer 30

No, the brain stem involves essential functions/reflexes concerned with keeping the body alive. Functions of the medulla, pons, midbrain, and reticular formation. Location of cranial nerve nuclei.

Question 31

What is the function of the medulla oblongata?

Answer 31

AKA the "medulla," most inferior part of brainstem. Contain nuclei for vital reflexes: regulating HR, blood vessel diameter, respiration, swallowing, vomiting, hiccuping, coughing, sneezing. Contains the olives (balance, coordination, sound modulation) and the pyramids (conscious control of skeletal muscles).

Question 32

What is the function of the pons?

Answer 32

Pontine nuclei, located within the pons, relay info from the cerebrum to the cerebellum. Pons also contains the pontine sleep center (initiates REM sleep), and the pontine respiratory center, which works with respiratory centers in the medulla oblongata to help control respiratory movements.

Question 33

Name the primary functions of the hypothalamus.

Answer 33

So many functions!! Pg 447 chart in textbook. Autonomic - HR, urine release, GI tract (digestion), blood vessel diameter Endocrine - secretions from pituitary gland, metabolism, ion %, sexual functions, ADH hormone and oxytocin production Muscle control - swallowing muscles, shivering Body temp. regulation - Increases sweat when temp increases (promotes heat loss) and stimulates shivering (promotes heat production) Food/water intake regulation - satiety center and thirst center Emotions - fear, rage, emotional influences over body productions, stress-related illness Sleep-wake cycle - coordinates with other brain areas (ex. reticular activating system), suprachiasmic nucleus receives direct input from eyes from light/dark cycles Sexual development/behavior - development, arousal, prep-tic area larger in males

Question 34

What are the three parts of the brain stem?

Answer 34

1. Medulla oblongata 2. Pons 3. Midbrain **reticular formation is a functional unit that spans all three divisions.

Question 35

What are the basal ganglia and what is their function?

Answer 35

Basal ganglia or basal nuclei are located beneath the cortex (subcortical). Largest nuclei in brain. Help control motor functions.

Question 36

What are the components of the limbic system and what is the limbic system’s function.

Answer 36

Limbic system includes parts of cerebrum and diencephalon grouped together. Limbic meaning "border," it refers to the ring around the cerebral cortex and structures beneath. Major role in motivation, emotion, learning, and memory. Influences endocrine/autonomic nervous systems. "Emotion center" of brain. 6 areas (pg 450 in text) in which 2 include the hippocampus and the hypothalamus.

Question 37

What is the function of the thalamus, hypothalamus and the epithalamus?

Answer 37

Thalamus: major sensory relay center - ALL SENSORY info (except olfactory); influences mood and movement. Hypothalamus: Major control center for maintaining homeostasis and resulting endocrine function. The hypothalamic nuclei are important to functions related to mood, motivation, and emotion. This is one reason that strong emotional experiences may affect person's desire/ability to eat, drink, have sex etc. Epithalamus: Contains nuclei involved in MOTIVATION and reward behavior, and contains pineal gland which controls the sleep-wake cycle. Pg 440 in text (chart)

Question 38

What are the parts of the diencephalon?

Answer 38

Parts of the diencephalon include the thalamus and the hypothalamus. (thalamus, sub thalamus, epithalamus which contains pineal gland, and hypothalamus). Area of the third ventricle. pg 440 in text for illustration and text

Question 39

What is the cerebral cortex?

Answer 39

The gray matter on the outer surface of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex. Thickness of the cortex ranges, from 2-3 layers in primitive areas of brain to 6 layers in more advanced areas.

Question 40

What are gyri...sulci?

Answer 40

They are folds on the surface of the brain. Gyri (increase surface area of cortex) and sulci (divide hemispheres into lobes). Sulci are the grooves between the gyri.

Question 41

Describe the structure of the cerebrum

Answer 41

Largest portion of total brain weight. Larger body = larger brain (not higher intelligence). Divided into left/right hemispheres. Has gyri (increase surface area of cortex) and sulci (divide hemispheres into lobes). Contains basal nuclei and the limbic system. Pg 449 textbook.

Question 42

What are the major divisions of the brain?

Answer 42

Cerebrum, brainstem, cerebellum

Question 43

What is the epidural space?

Answer 43

Space between the dura and vertebral bones within the vertebral canal.

Question 44

What is the function of cerebrospinal fluid?

Answer 44

It bathes the brain and the spinal cord and provides a protective cushion around the CNS. Allows brain to float within cranial cavity so it doesn't rest directly on skull or dura mater. Protects against shock of rapid movements. Provides some nutrients to CNS tissues. It's a clear fluid similar to blood serum but w/out most of proteins. Pg 454 textbook

Question 45

Where is cerebrospinal fluid found in the meninges?

Answer 45

SUBARACHNOID SPACE

Question 46

Explain convergent and divergent neuron pathways.

Answer 46

In reference to neuronal pathways and circuits, a convergent pathway is when multiple neurons converge upon and synapse with a smaller number of neurons. Example: muscle contraction, through summation, activated by converging neurons stimulating the production of more EPSPs than IPSPs. Muscle contraction would be inhibited if the converging neurons stimulated the production of more IPSPs than EPSPs. In a divergent neuronal pathway a smaller number of presynaptic neurons synapse with a larger number of postsynaptic neuron to allow info transmitted in one neuronal pathway to diverge into two or more pathways. These pathways allow one part of the nervous system to affect more than one other part of the nervous system. Example: sensory input to the CNS can go to both the spinal cord and the brain. pg 402 textbook

Question 47

Explain the blood brain barrier and how the capillary structure strengthens this barrier.

Answer 47

BBB is a highly selective permeability barrier of the capillaries of arteries in brain tissue. Regulates the movement of materials from the blood into the brain. It's formed by tight junctions between the capillary endothelial cells. Astrocytes promote the formation of these tight junctions between the endothelial cells. Materials that would enter many tissues by passing between the endothelial cells of capillaries cannot pass through the BBB because of the tight junctions. Most materials that enter the brain pass through the endothelial cells. O2, nicotine, ethanol can freely diffuse through the plasma membranes of the endothelial cells and enter the brain. Pg 456 textbook.

Question 48

How does summation help a local potential reach threshold?

Answer 48

Many presynaptic action potentials cause many graded potentials in the postsynaptic neuron. Graded potentials combine in summation at the trigger zone for the postsynaptic neuron, either exceeding threshold at the trigger zone or not. If threshold is passed, an action potential is produced. Textbook page 401: spatial and temporal summation. Wikipedia: multiple simultaneous inputs (spatial summation) vs. repeated inputs (temporal summation)

Question 49

What is the primary function of the corpus callosum?

Answer 49

Function: ensures both sides of the brain can communicate and send signals to each other. Corpus callous is the largest bundle of commissural fibers. Commissural fibers connect one cerebral hemisphere to the other hemisphere.

Question 50

Name the major skull bones that protect the cerebrum

Answer 50

There are eight bones that surround your brain: one frontal bone; two parietal bones, two temporal bones, one occipital bone, one sphenoid bone and one ethmoid bone. These eight bones make up the cranium.

Question 51

What structure in the ventricles produces the cerebral spinal fluid?

Answer 51

Ventrical image in textbook, pg 453. Answer: choroid plexus. There is a choroid plexus in each ventricle of the brain, but most CSF is formed by the choroid plexus in the the lateral ventricles of the brain (about 80% - 90%).

Question 52

What is the function of the arachnoid granulations?

Answer 52

Arachnoid granulations are small protrusions of the arachnoid mater (the thin second layer covering the brain) into the outer membrane of the dura mater (the thick outer layer). They protrude into the dural venous sinuses of the brain, and allow cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to exit the subarachnoid space and enter the blood stream. Function: Diffusion across the arachnoid granulations into the superior sagittal sinus returns CSF to the venous circulation, or to simply put, drainage of CSF.

Question 53

What is found in the subarachnoid space?

Answer 53

The subarachnoid space (between the arachnoid mater and Pia mater) contains strands of arachnoid mater and blood vessels which supply the brain. You can also find CSF here.

Question 54

Where would a subdural hematoma occur?

Answer 54

The dura mater lines the skull and surrounds the brain. In a subdural hematoma, the blood seeps between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater layers, called the subdural space. Blood collects inside the brain’s tough outer lining. This bleeding often comes from a blood vessel that breaks within the space around the brain.

Question 55

Describe the three layers of the meninges and their functions.

Answer 55

Brain meninges (3) 1. Dura mater: thickest, most superficial. Dense irregular CT. Tightly adheres to cranial bones, creates potential space aka epidural space. 2. Arachnoid mater: very thin, wispy membrane just below dura mater. Very small space between arachnoid and dura mater is a space containing very small amount of serous fluid called the subdural space. 3. Pia mater: bound very tightly to brain's surface! Subarachnoid space between Pia mater and arachnoid mater, contains blood vessels supplying brain. Filled with CSF.

Question 56

What is white matter.... gray matter?

Answer 56

Gray matter: groups of neuron cell bodies, their dendrites, unmyelinated. In CNS, gray matter located on surface of brain (cortex) and deep within brain in clusters called "nuclei." In PNS, gray matter is clustered neuron cell bodies, or "ganglia." White matter: myelinated, propagate action potentials. In CNS, white matter forms nerve tracts from one area in CNS to another. In PNS, make up what we call "nerves" which are bundles of axons and their connective tissue sheaths.

Question 57

What is an axoaxonic regulation?

Answer 57

First, have to know what an AXOAXONIC SYNAPSE is. Pg 400 in text. That's when the axon of one neuron synapses with the presynaptic terminal (axon) of another. The neuron that synapses on the axon of presynaptic neuron can influence/modulate/regulate the release of presynaptic neuron's neurotransmitter, either inhibiting the amount (presynaptic inhibition) or increasing the amount (presynaptic facilitation). And this, I assume would be called AXOAXONIC REGULATION. Textbook doesn't explicitly mention this.

Question 58

What is the anaxonic neuron?

Answer 58

No axons. Only dendrites. Engage in graded potentials only. No action potentials. Found in brain and retina.

Question 59

Where are unipolar neurons located?

Answer 59

Located in both the PNS and CNS. They have one branch called the peripheral process which extends to periphery and has dendrites... and another called the central process which extends to CNS. Great resource for simplified info: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/human-biology/neuron-nervous-system/a/overview-of-neuron-structure-and-function

Question 60

What is the primary function of a bipolar neuron?

Answer 60

Bipolar neurons often have specialized dendrites to receive the stimulus, and the axon conducts the action potentials to the CNS. Special sensory organs have bipolar neurons such as the retina of the eye and the nasal cavity.

Question 61

Describe the four different STRUCTURE classes of neurons?

Answer 61

Multipolar neurons - many dendrites, one axon. Example: CNS neurons and motor neurons of PNS. Bipolar neurons - one dendrite and one axon. Example: some sensory organs. Pseudo-unipolar neurons (aka unipolar) - Have single process extending from cell body which splits into two branches, one to the periphery and the other to the CNS. Example: most sensory neurons are this one. Anaxonic neurons - no axons, only dendrites projecting from cell body (only use graded potentials aka electrical synapses, NO ACTION POTENTIALS WITH THIS ONE). Example: Found within brain and retina.

Question 62

What is axoplasm?

Answer 62

Axoplasm is another name for the cytoplasm of an axon. Pg 374 in textbook. Know other terms such as axon hillock, trigger zone, axolemma, presynaptic terminal, synaptic vesicles, neurotransmitters.

Question 63

What comprises the CNS and the PNS?

Answer 63

CNS comprised of BRAIN and SPINAL CORD PNS comprised of RECEPTORS, NERVES, GANGLIA, and PLEXUSES (any nervous tissue outside the CNS).

Question 64

What is a plexus?

Answer 64

A plexus (in any context) essentially means "network." In this instance, we're talking about a network, or plexus of nerves. Different nerves can join to form a plexus.

Question 65

Which type of neuroglial cells are found in the PNS.

Answer 65

Schwann cells Satellite cells

Question 66

Which types of neuroglial cells are found in the CNS?

Answer 66

Astrocytes Ependymal cells Microglia Oligodendrocytes

Question 67

Name the different types of neuroglial cells and their functions?

Answer 67

Neuroglial cells are glial cells. All glial cells support/aid neurons of CNS and PNS. CNS: Astroctyes, Ependymal Cells, Microglia, Oligodendrocytes PNS: Schwann cells and Satellite cells Click audio for their functions.

Question 68

What is a nerve composed of?

Answer 68

Composed of a grouping or bundle of axons, and groupings of cell bodies/dendrites is what makes up gray matter/white matter. Page 379 textbook.

Question 69

What are an ascending and a descending pathway?

Answer 69

Ascending pathway carry conscious/unconscious sensation. Essentially it's an action potential carrying sensory info from the periphery of body to the brain via tracts (pathways). Descending pathway reduce conscious perception of sensation. "Descend" from brain to spinal cord.

Question 70

larger diameter axons

Answer 70

can conduct speed of action potential faster, more surface area for Na+ voltage gates... Type A, B, and C nerve fibers

Question 71

Type A Nerve Fiber Type is

Answer 71

is the LARGEST! Supply skeletal and motor sensory neurons. Type B is medium, lightly myelinated. Part of ANS. Type C is small and unmyelinated. Part of ANS.

Question 72

Type B and C Nerve Fibers are part of the same system

Answer 72

Autonomic Nervous System.

Question 73

MS attacks what types of cells only

Answer 73

Schwann cells, so the PNS is affected, not the CNS. That's why if your diagnosed with this illness, your autonomic nervous system is okay!

Question 74

At least 100 different types of _______.

Answer 74

Neurotransmitters!

Question 75

Catecholamines and indoleamines are

Answer 75

biogenic amines

Question 76

glycine and glutamate are examples of

Answer 76

amino acids

Question 77

what are purines?

Answer 77

nitrogen containing compounds derived from nucleic acids.. (neurotransmitters)

Question 78

ATP can actually be used as a

Answer 78

NEUROTRANSMITTER

Question 79

Example of purines

Answer 79

adenosine and ATP

Question 80

Neuropeptides

Answer 80

short chains of amino acids

Question 81

gases and lipids can function as

Answer 81

can also act as neurotransmitter! Examples: nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, endocannabinoids (lipid-derived)

Question 82

EPSP or IPSP leads to

Answer 82

binding of neurotransmitter to receptor EPSP (excitatory) IPSP (inhibitory)

Question 83

Do neurotransmitters have IPSP or EPSP effect?

Answer 83

Most neurotransmitters can have both effects; depends on which postsynaptic neuron receptors they bind; single neurotransmitter may have SEVERAL receptor types.

Question 84

acetylcholine in the nervous system vs in the heart

Answer 84

can have wildly different effects in the body... 14:00 minutes in recording 10/3/22

Question 85

how many groups of neurotransmitter

Answer 85

4 (don't need to know all 100, obviously)

Question 86

Acetylcholine can be

Answer 86

EXCITATORY AND INHIBITORY (inhibitory in the heart!)

Question 87

all about EPSPs

Answer 87

depolarize (excitatory) synaptic (going to synapse) MIGHT REACH THRESHOLD, doesn't guarantee it.

Question 88

all about IPSPs

Answer 88

hyper polarization, response is inhibitory MIGHT*

Question 89

Neuromodulators

Answer 89

Influence likelihood of an AP being produced in postsynaptic cell

Question 90

Axon communicating with another axon

Answer 90

axoaxonic synapses - axon of one neuron synapses with presynaptic terminal of another. It's a way to do neuromodulation. Common in CNS. Examples of this would be a drug that shuts down the Ca++ gates, would prevent exocytosis of neurotransmitter of the affected axon

Question 91

Endorphins are an example of

Answer 91

IPSP, can inhibit pain sensation

Question 92

Glutatmate facilitation nitric oxide production (24:00 minute answer 10/3 recording)

Question 93

GABA release in an axoaxonic synapse

Answer 93

Inactivates Ca++ channels - INHIBITION of synapse; IPSP (might inhibit though, isn't a guarantee)

Question 94

Two types of summation

Answer 94

spatial and temporal spatial: action potentials 1 and 2 cause production of graded potentials at 2 different dendrites. These summate. Multiple neurons working together to achieve threshold down an axon temporal: 2 action potentials arrive in close succession at presynaptic membrane. One neuron sending multiple signals over and over to reach threshold.

Question 95

Convergent pathways

Answer 95

many converge in synapse with smaller number of neurons. ex: synthesis of data in brain

Question 96

divergent pathways

Answer 96

small number of presynaptic neurons synapse with large number of postsynaptic neurons. ex: important info can be transmitted to many parts of brain. Think of a cord (axon) going to a power strip, where there are different outlets (synaptic bulbs)

Question 97

reverberating circuit:

Answer 97

output cause reciprocal activation. Ex: rhythmic activities such as breathing signal goes down, comes back. goes down again, comes back.

Question 98

Parallel after-discharge circuit:

Answer 98

neurons stimulate several neurons in parallel organization, which converge upon a common output cell. Ex: complex data processing in brain neurons all running parallel to each other and then converging. good example is VISION!

Question 99

brain made of

Answer 99

neurons, neuroglia cells, supporting CT

Question 100

brain stem begins at

Answer 100

medulla oblongata

Question 101

neural cortex

Answer 101

is the very outer covering of your cerebrum, where your gray matter is at

Question 102

dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater

Answer 102

cranial meninges - 3 layers - ** are continuous with spinal meninges, protect brain from trauma

Question 103

dendrites and the soma in the cortex are what kind of matter and do what

Answer 103

gray matter and process a lot of the information, on the surface of your brain!

Question 104

pia mater - what layer

Answer 104

directly attached to brain

Question 105

where is dural sinus.. between what

Answer 105

the dural mater (endosteal layer) and the dura mater (meningeal layer) collects used blood so it can be oxygenated and taken down to kidneys and cleaned

Question 106

subdural space (ever heard of a subdural hematoma?)

Answer 106

if ever injured there, blood collects in there and begins to build pressure, presses down on cerebral cortex which is covered in capillaries... bad

Question 107

arachnoid mater

Answer 107

spongy layer of brain

Question 108

this meningeal layer is attached to brain surface by astrocytes

Answer 108

pia mater (pia mater is basically the top layer of the brain or outer surface)

Question 109

dural folds

Answer 109

folded inner layer of dura matter extend into cranial cavity stabilize/support brain contain collecting veins (dural sinuses) three large folds

Question 110

three large dural folds, name them

Answer 110

falx cerebri, falx cerebelli, tentorium cerebelli

Question 111

tentorium cerebelli (lab note)

Answer 111

SUPER THICK, NEED SCISSORS TO CUT THROUGH IT!

Question 112

CSF has unique functions

Answer 112

responsible for "BUOYING" the brain.. different from floating... CSF buoys the brain. produces about 500 ml of CSF/day - means if you make that much per day, you have to drain that much per day.

Question 113

this is made of specialized ependymal cells and capillaries

Answer 113

choroid plexus

Question 114

Arachnoid vili

Answer 114

extensions of subarachnoid... arachnoid granulations... they help reabsorb and transfer CSF out in to the superior sagittal sinus

Question 115

if 500 ml of CSF is not maintained and evenly distributed can result in

Answer 115

hydroencephalitis

Question 116

Not only a BBB but a

Answer 116

Blood - CSF Barrier too! Limits movement of compounds transferred. Allows chemical composition of blood and CSF to differ. Surround capillaries of choroid plexus

Question 117

Why can alcohol get into the brain so easily?

Answer 117

Lipid-soluble!!!

Question 118

Formed by a network of _______.

Answer 118

Tight junctions - BBB

Question 119

Astrocytes control BBB by

Answer 119

releasing chemicals that control permeability of endothelium

Question 120

Remember, endothelium is the what?

Answer 120

Lining of a blood vessel

Question 121

helps link everything together

Answer 121

pons

Question 122

Diencephalon is what exactly

Answer 122

thalamus, epithalamus, hypothalamus

Question 123

Where is the pituitary gland located?

Answer 123

epithalamus (diencephalon) epithalamus is AKA pituitary gland

Question 124

Another name for the midbrain

Answer 124

Mesencephalon

Question 125

Peduncles are

Answer 125

myelinated and unmyelinated bundles of axons taking info to and from brain

Question 126

tract, what is?

Answer 126

collection of axons, sending info in the form of action potentials. have ascending tracts going to the brain. and descending tracts, which send APs out from brain to effectors (muscles, glands, adipose tissue).

Question 127

nuclei, talk about

Answer 127

cluster of somas outside of the cortex area, they are clusters of gray matter or neuron cell bodies. Located in white matter of brain stem, cerebellum, and cerebrum. AP can travel from nuclei to nuclei, each nuclei "stop" is a synapse

Question 128

superior cerebellar peduncles

Answer 128

connect with cerebrum middle cerebellar connect with pons inferior cerebellar connect with spinal cord remember peduncles are just nerve tracts (don't confuse with cerebral peduncles)

Question 129

ataxia (of cerebellum)

Answer 129

damage from trauma or stroke, intoxication - temporary impairment, disturbs muscle coordination. roadside stop by police, testing cerebellar functions

Question 130

highly folded neural cortex means

Answer 130

there's a lot more neurons located in there - learned memory patterns etc

Question 131

pineal gland AKA _______, secretes _________.

Answer 131

epithalamus, secretes hormone melatonin (linked in with optic chiasma, why light dictates the release of melatonin from pineal gland, why blind people's circadian rhythms are all messed up) PART OF DIENCEPHALON

Question 132

thalamus

Answer 132

part of DIENCEPHALON major processing area... sometimes the wiring can be a little mixed up and what can occur?!! filters ascending sensory info for primary sensory cortex relays info between basal nuclei and cerebral cortex. Like little traffic guard saying, "you go this way, you go that way" sometimes the senses can be mixed up. where you eat a food and see a color etc etc

Question 133

if your basal nuclei start to breakdown and can't secrete enough of their neurotransmitter, dopamine...

Answer 133

you will have voluntary muscle contraction issues

Question 134

multiple IPSPs and EPSPs can be sent at the same time, true or false

Answer 134

true

Question 135

ANTERIOR GROUP OF THALAMUS, and MEDIAL GROUP, lastly VENTRAL GROUP... talk about.

Answer 135

*Exact definitions on exam Anterior Group: part of the limbic system Medial group: integrates sensory information for projection to the frontal lobes - what happens there? - consequences of actions, reasoning, etc Ventral group: Projects sensory information to the primary sensory cortex; relays info from cerebellum and basal nuclei to motor area of cerebral cortex... relaying info to motor area means some sort of effector will be stimulated

Question 136

POSTERIOR GROUP OF THALAMUS, talk about.

Answer 136

PULVINAR is going to an association area - the example where you're looking through your purse and need a chapstick but you're driving. LATERAL GENICULATE NUCLEI - brain sees not your eyes. your eyes are the receptors, your brain processes the info. when you're dreaming can you see things? you don't need your eyes!! MEDIAL GENICULATE NUCLEI - auditory information

Question 137

LATERAL GROUP OF THALAMUS

Answer 137

integrates sensory information and influences your emotional states

Question 138

Hypothalamus

Answer 138

Floor of brain, PART OF DIENCEPHALON. Mamillary bodies process olfactory and other sensory info. Control reflex eating movements. Infundibulum - connects hypothalamus to pituitary gland.

Question 139

8 function of hypothalamus

Answer 139

1. provides subconscious control of skeletal muscle 2. controls autonomic function 3. coordinates activities of nervous and endocrine systems 4. secretes hormones - antidiuretic ("anti" - against, "diuresis" means urine) hormones ADH by SUPRAOPTIC NUCLEUS and Oxytocin by PARAVENTRICULAR NUCLEUS - woman hears a baby cry, milk letdown (emotional states) 5. produces emotions and behavorial drives - feeding and thirst centers.. another center also involves emotions and memory 6. coordinates voluntary and autonomic functions 7. regulates body temp... body thermostat in hypothalamus 8. controls circadian rhythms - (day-night cycles) *the "master" of the brain is really the hypothalamus

Question 140

hypothalamus regions, know the following: mamillary bodies, describe. autonomic centers, describe. tuberal nuclei, describe. supraoptic nucleus, describe. paraventricular nucleus, describe. preoptic areas, describe. suprachiasmic nucleus, describe.

Answer 140

mamillary bodies - control feeding reflexes, swallowing, licking, suckling autonomic centers - control medullary nuclei that regulate heart rate and blood pressure tuberal nuclei - release hormones that control endocrine cells of anterior pituitary gland which is referred to as the "adeno-hypothesis" posterior pituitary gland known as "neuro-hypothesis" supraoptic nucleus - secretes ADH restricting water loss by the kidneys, controls dehydration paraventricular nucleus - oxytocin (sexual excitation, milk letdown, uterine contractions). preoptic areas - regulate body temp. suprachiasmic nucleus - helps you determine if its night or day... communicates with pineal gland. "chiasma" has to do with optic nerves

Question 141

gyri a part of limbic system

Answer 141

cingulate gyrus

Question 142

hypothalamus and what have similar functions

Answer 142

limbic system

Question 143

long term memory

Answer 143

piece of info has to be repeated 7-9 repetitions over successive days to reinforce info in brain... brain needs more time. ADD SENSORY INPUT CAN HELP SPEED THIS UP! reading, writing, saying, making it more stimulating to you in whatever way possible.

Question 144

when you smell something it's remembered instantly, why

Answer 144

because it goes BOOF! straight back into the limbic system

Question 145

hippocampus

Answer 145

converts short term memory to long term memory... process information for different people at different speeds... someone who learns info faster may have a hippocampus that processes info faster

Question 146

Limbic System table

Answer 146

processing of memories, creation of emotional states and drives, associated behaviors - basic primal drives

Question 147

Cerebrum

Answer 147

largest part of brain, controls all conscious thoughts/intellectual functions, process somatic sensory (things we can feel over our skin/perception) and motor info...

Question 148

white matter of cerebrum

Answer 148

deep to cortex and around basal nuclei, myelinated and unmyelinated axons

Question 149

gray matter of cerebrum

Answer 149

cerebral cortex and basal nuclei... consists of somas and dendrites

Question 150

Central sulcus divides

Answer 150

Precentral and Postcentral Gyrus

Question 151

corpus callosum

Answer 151

joins together the hemispheres and allows them to communicate through a "commissure" (think, what's "to commiserate" mean) each cerebral hemisphere receives sensory info from and sends motor commands to the opposite side of the body

Question 152

gyri of neural cortex increase the ________ of the cerebrum so we can have a lot more __________.

Answer 152

SURFACE AREA, CORTICAL NEURONS called cortical neurons because they're located in the cortex.

Question 153

talk about white matter of cerebrum

Answer 153

association fibers - connections within one hemisphere commissural fibers - "co" means together, bands of fibers connecting two hemispheres projection fibers - connect cerebrum with lower areas

Question 154

basal nuclei

Answer 154

located in cerebrum, gray matter, involved in subconscious control of skeletal muscle tone, the coordination of learned movement patterns (walking, lifting) work with cerebellum

Question 155

motor and sensory areas of cortex

Answer 155

motor areas precentral gyrus - directs voluntary movement (frontal lobe) primary motor cortex pyramidal cels - neurons of primary motor cortex

Question 156

separates motor and sensory areas of cerebrum

Answer 156

CENTRAL SULCUS

Question 157

sensory areas of cerebrum

Answer 157

postcentral gyrus of parietal lobe - receives somatic sensory info (touch, pressure, pain, vibration, taste, and temperature) primary sensory cortex - gray matter

Question 158

special sensory cortexes, talk about them

Answer 158

visual cortex - info from sight receptors auditory cortex olfactory cortex gustatory cortex *also, balance and equilibrium

Question 159

association areas of brain are important

Answer 159

to construct a 3D model memory of what you have perceived, etc

Question 160

association areas of cerebrum

Answer 160

sensory association areas and somatic sensory association area visual, auditory, and somatic motor association areas

Question 161

integrative centers of cerebrum

Answer 161

located in lobes and cortical areas of both cerebral hemispheres receive info from association areas direct complex motor or analytical activities

Question 162

of cerebrum, general interpretive area AKA

Answer 162

wernicke's area present only in one hemisphere what is it? involved in the comprehension of speech

Question 163

other integrative areas of cerebrum

Answer 163

-speech center -prefrontal cortex of frontal lobe - integrates info from sensory association areas, perform abstract intellectual activities, consequences of actions

Question 164

chart from 14-8 cerebral cortex

Question 165

cerebrum - hemispheric lateralization

Answer 165

-functional differences between L and R hemispheres -each hemisphere performs certain functions that are not ordinarily performed by opposite hemisphere -remember little girl though, that was only born with half a brain and it picked up all the functions. but it's a young brain, young brains have more plasticity, are more malleable.

Question 166

left hemisphere of cerebrum

Answer 166

in left brain MOST PEOPLE - reading writing math decision making speech and language

Question 167

right hemisphere of cerebrum

Answer 167

senses (touch, smell, sight, taste, and feel) recognition (faces, voice inflections)