Exam 1 Flashcards
What are the two viewpoints that define deviant behavior?
Normative Perspective
Situational Perspective
Normative vs. Situational perspective of deviant behavior
Normative: Sees deviance as behavior that violates generally accepted social norms.
Situational: Shifts the focus to the social situation surrounding the behavior in question (when and where it occurred)
What is Deviant Behavior?
Actions that violate social norms
What are the two sociological concepts that determine if a behavior is deviant?
- Culture
- Social Organization
Social organization…
Provides the means for carrying out the complex network of social interactions b/w individuals, social groups, and institutions.
Why is culture important in relation to deviance?
What is deviant is based on culture (calling out class in America is deviant but could be the norm in another country)
What are social norms?
Normative expectations for behavior that provide boundaries for interpersonal relations
Social Roles
Defined by a set of social norms for the behavior of individuals who occupy given statuses within society.
Expectational Norms
Refers to behaviors ideal for individuals who are enacting a particular social role or who are in a given social situation.
What are behavioral norms?
What persons typically do when occupying a particular role or in a given social situation.
Situational Perspective (How it defines deviance & the steps)
The labeling of certain actions as deviant depends on the social characteristics and context of the actor.
- Defining behaviors
- Labeling Actors
- Responding to the label attached to the actors
Public Condemnation in terms of defining deviance
The degree of public condemnation of the behavior and the offenders can serve as an indicator of the severity of the deviant act.
Informal vs. Formal Controls
Informal: Refers to gossip, ridicule, and exclusion from group activities and social groups, among other forms.
Formal: Refers to the official sanctioning of certain norm violators.
What are William Graham’s classifications of social norms?
- Folkways
- Mores
- Laws
Folkways
Everyday practices commonly observed within a given culture (expected to be followed)
Mores
Norms that govern more important sociocultural behaviors (offensive to violate)
Laws
The most serious form of social norms, used to respond to criminal norm violations.
Patterened vs. Idiosyncratic (Social Dimensions of Deviance)
- Patterned: Deviant behaviors are carried out in similar ways by individuals who have never met across widely scattered geographical areas (ex. date rape)
- Idiosyncratic: “Odd” deviance unique to certain people, not likely to form patterns, less common, not likely to be repeated.
Positive vs. Negative (Social dimensions of deviance)
- Positive: Deviance that is necessary for creative problem solving + to bring about social/political change
- Negative: Negative consequences on individuals and society at large, which is why it is considered deviant
Innovative vs. Routine (Social dimensions of deviance)
- Innovative: May be either positive or negative, like scientific breakthroughs vs. cybercrime
- Routine: Deviance that is “normal” like drugs; it is deviant because it’s defined that way.
Episodic vs. Chronic (Social dimensions of deviance)
- Episodic: Deviance that occurs only because of the circumstances the person is in.
- Chronic: Deviance or criminal behavior which persists across a wide range of social situations.
Situational deviance
certain situations lead to deviance that would
not be engaged in normally (riots)
Durkheim’s arguments
for the functions of deviance
1) it clarifies norms and increases conformity
2) it strengthens social bonds among the people reacting to the deviance
3) it can help lead to positive social change and challenges to people’s present view
Role of deviance in identity
formation
Involvement in certain forms of deviance can provide a sense of identity to persons who are unable to gain status or recognition through legitimate means
What can deviance tell us
about the need for social
change?
Signals the need for greater social change (ex. opioid epidemic / organized acts of civil disobedience)
How does deviant behavior relate to societal employment?
CJS provides hundreds of thousands of jobs, engaging in deviance can result in a harder time finding a job
How was crime and deviance explained in the pre-modern era?
Demonic possession, metaphysical + spirtual forces, makeup of human beings and the millenium they live
Positivism
Philosophical approach to the study of society that relies on what can be observed and emphasizes empirical scientific evidence
Positivisms impact on the view of deviance
the growth of positivism led to the rethinking of causes of social behavior and the structure of social life, led to the replacement of non-empirical beliefs
three traditional theoretical perspectives on crime and deviance in the modern age
- The classical school
- The social reaction, or labeling, perspective
- Social control theory
scientific theory
a set of interrelated and interdependent propositions designed to predict a given phenomenon
proposition
a statement of the relationship between two variables, or phenomena, in the empirical world
Logical consistency
Refers to the clarity of the concepts or variables that are used to form propositions
Scope
Refers to the “Range of phenomena” accounted for by the theory
Parsimony
Refers to the ideal in science to discover the simplest theoretical explanation for the broadest set of occurrences (Related to scope) aka the simpler the better
Testability
refers to the ability of other scientist to test the theory - crucial for theories
Empirical validity
scientifically credible evidence supporting the theory - fundamental
Usefulness
empirically validated evidence from the theory is used to design and implement prevention and intervention programs and policies - very important
Classical School of Thought
Views crime as a free-will decision, developed by Caesar Beccaria
Three basic characteristics of all individuals (Beccaria)
- Free will
- Rationality: Acting and refraining as deliberate processes
- Manipulability: The rational pursuit of self-interest
Hedonistic principle and its role in deterring crime
Persons are motivated to maximize pleasure and minimize pain
inflicting a sufficient amount of pain or discomfort on the offender could deter criminal behavior
Rational & Situational Choice Theory
(Cornish & Clarke) Focus on the individuals conscious, rational decision making, rationality is bounded
Target hardening
Making physical spaces more defensible and less attractive to perpetrators, can deter crime or result in crime displacement
crime displacement
changing the location of criminal behavior to a more conducive environment
symbolic interaction theory
(Cooley & Mead) our sense of self is the result of an interactional process
Looking-Glass self
the qualities that we assign to ourselves are those that we think other assign to us
societal reaction/labeling perspective on crime?
The behavior of indiviudals is based on how society labels them, those labeled deviant are more likely to engage in more deviance
Primary vs Secondary deviance
Primary: Typically refers to minor norm violations
Secondary: primary deviance becomes publicly known and the person is adjudicated as criminal
self-derogation
The process by which one accepts the negative judgments of others
Braithwaite’s Theory of Reintegrative Shaming (and how is it different from disintegrative shaming)
Reintegrative shaming occurs when the community conveys its disapproval of a person’s deviant behavior, but maintains respect for the individual. On the other hand, disintegrative shaming is when the person is labeled criminal for their behavior
Basic premise of social bonds theory
Social bonds deter delinquent and criminal behavior
Attachment
strength of bonds to family and other prosocial relationships
Commitment
level of dedication to conventional norms, goals, and institutions
Involvement
level of involvement in conventional activities
Belief
level of belief in the validity of mainstream values and norms
General Theory of Crime
(Gottfredson & Hirschi) Focuses on individuals’ self-control; most crimes are not well planned but are committed to satisfy an immediate need or desire.
How is low self-control defined?
An orientation toward the present, rather than the future (short-sightedness), attraction towards physical activities, self-centeredness, risk taking, intolerance for frustration
Conflict perspective
focuses on the ways in which social conflicts (primarily class conflict) affect the prevalence of criminal offending and deviant behavior
Marxist analysis of social structure
Two conflicting classes: Bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and the Proletariat (the working class).
Inequality comes from the concentration of wealth/power in the Bourgeoisie, exploitation of the working class, and their ability to manipulate the legal system
Sellin’s conduct norms
Deviance arises when the conduct norms of one cultural group of subculture clash with one another
When are conflict over conduct norms most likely to occur?
- two cultural groups in close proximity + the conduct norms of one group conflicts with the other
- Laws of the dominant cultural group govern the subordinate group
- members of one group move into an area governed by another group
Turk’s conflict model & under what conditions is social conflict most likely to occur
Criminal acts of the less powerful members of society are more likely to be criminalized than those of the powerful
- marked differences in cultural values
- Less powerful members of society are well-organized and committed to advancing their cause
Quinney’s theory of social reality of crime
Criminal & delinquent behaviors are social constructions fabricated by the dominant economic class to control the working masses
Two related processes:
- Legally defining criminal behaviors as criminal
- Imposing the label of “criminal” on those who engage in such behaviors
Thio’s power theory of deviance
Deviance may be viewed along a range of lower to higher consensus acts. Higher consensus = less ambiguity about potential/real harm from said act
what role does consensus play in defining deviance
The higher the consensus, the less the ambiguity about the potential or actual harm that results from the deviant behavior
Thio’s power theory of deviance primary propositions
- The more power people have, the more likely they will be to engage in lower consensus deviance with a lower probability of being labeled deviant
- It is more likely that the powerful will engage in lower consensus deviance and the powerless will commit higher consensus deviance
- Deviance by the powerful induces deviance by the powerless that, in turn, contributes to deviance by the powerful
Hagan’s conceptualization of social class as a product of power relations
The social class of workers is defined by the extent to which they own a business, or can exercise authority over other workers, owners are in a position to commit larger crimes than employees
Black builds on this, saying how the law is most likely to be mobilized when the powerful initiate it (white vs black)
Daly and Chelsey-Lind Feminist Theory
Drew attention to the disproportionate involvement of men in most forms of criminal and deviant activity
Male Dominance Feminist Theory
Theories of crime and deviance must include consideration of the complex issues related to gender inequities and their consequences
functionalist perspective
focuses on the purpose, usefulness, or contribution that a particular social phenomenon makes to the social order.
Durkheims perspective on functionalism
Crime & deviance are normal occurrences in society, society without crime is not possible
Manifest functions
intended to make change and recognized
Latent functions
neither intended nor recognized but still makes change
Dysfunctions
any social element that disrupts the stability of a society and causes the society not to run smoothly.
social integration
the extent to which persons were bound into or isolated from social life
social regulation
the extent to which individuals are required to follow the guidelines for their behavior established by the group
Merton’s theory of social structure and anomie
argued that most people are socialized to want the same cultural goals, but not all have the institutionalized means to attain those goals, leading to anomie (a potential precursor of deviant behavior)
Conformity (adaptation to anomie)
acceptance of institutionalized means to culturally approved goals
Innovation (adaptation to anomie)
acceptance of the culturally approved goals, but a rejection of the instituitonalized means to achieve them
Ritualism (adaptation to anomie)
lowering one’s expectations for success to a level that is more readily available
Retreatism (adaptation to anomie)
rejection of both the culturally approved goals and the institutionalized means for achieving them
Rebellion (adaptation to anomie)
rejection of both the institutionalized means and culturally approved goals, followed by the adoption of new means and new goals
Cloward and Ohlin’s theories on the development of subcultures
young people turn to delinquency when they have been boxed out of more legitimate opportunities - 3 subcultures: criminal, violent, retreatist
Criminal subcultures
provide opportunities for engaging in crimes of theft, drug dealing, and other forms of profitable illicit activities
Violent subcultures
occur when opportunities for profitable criminal activities are not available. In these subcultures, participants rely on their physical prowess to gain respect
Retreatist subcultures
occur when there are no opportunities for involvement in crime and participants lack the physical ability to gain status by the use of force (drug use is common)
Agnew’s strain theory of deviant behavior
Strain is experienced when aspirations + expectations are not met / negative social interaction, crime is used to alleviate this strain
Strain
Stressors that increase the likelihood of crime
Social disorganization
the disregard for norms of behavior by individual group members
cultural transmission theory
refers to the cultural passing-on of values that support delinquent behaviors, from adolescents currently living in the neighborhood to recent arrivals
Wolfgang and Ferracuti’s subculture of violence thesis
observed that most violent behaviors are spontaneous acts prompted by trivial disputes, a subculture of violence places great value on the use of aggression to resolve disputes (lack of this aggression can result in ridicule + social isolation)
Miller’s focal concerns theory and all focal concerns
Concerns which organize the daily life of lower class residents within the inner city
1.Trouble
2.Toughness
3.Smartness
4.Excitement
5.Fate
6.Autonomy
Cohen’s theory of status frustration
Argued that lower class boys form gangs and commit crimes to obtain a sense of belonging and status otherwise denied to them by schools and other middle-class institutions
Sykes and Matza’s techniques of neutralization
Deviant people routinely deny the social and personal harm caused by behavior by developing techniques of neutralization:
1.denial of responsibility
2.denial of injury
3.denial of victims
4.appeal to higher loyalties
5.condemnation of condemners
Anderson’s Code of the Street
survival depends on the ability to gain and maintain respect among other resident of the neighborhood
differential association theory
Edwin Sutherland - the greater the interaction with others who commit crime (more than with those who dont), the greater the likelihood that the motives, rationalizations, and techniques for criminal offending will be learned and carried out
social learning theory
Ronald Akers - asks why people engage in criminal and non criminal activity. involves four related processes: differential association + reinforcement, definitions and imitation
Definitions (social learning theory)
the meaning and value given to certain behaviors.
Differential reinforcement (social learning theory)
behaviors for which a reward is granted or anticipated will be repeated
Imitation (social learning theory)
process by which individuals model admired behavior of others
Sutherland’s Nine Propositions of Differential Association Theory
- Criminal behavior is learned
- It is learned in interactions with others (usually verbal)
- Learned within intimate personal groups
- Learned behaviors include techniques of committing the crime, and the specific direction of motives
- The specific direction of the motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable
6***** A person becomes delinquent not just through criminal activity but also through the isolation from anticriminal patterns
- Differential association may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity
- Mechanisms involved in learning crime are the same as those for learning other things
- Criminal behavior = expression of general needs and values but is not explained by those same needs and values since non-criminal behavior is an expression of the same thing
How did Burgess and Akers build on Sutherlands propositions
revised the theory to argue that an individual is more likely to commit a crime when they associate with others who commit, model, and support law violation
Fear of ridicule
The fear of not being accepted by one’s peers - can result in a person committing acts they normally would not
Status
Denotes prestige or respect within a group, often within some sort of recognized hierarchy (important among adolescents)
Short and Strodtbeck - Status and Gangs
Gang members use crime to fend off attacks to status or to establish status (assaulting someone after losing a tournament)
Boredom
Adolescents (and adults but less commonly) have large amounts of free time, leading to the engagement of group processes, leading to the possible participation in deviance
Protection
Young people, and males in particular, sometimes form alliances with peers as a means of protection from other groups (motivation for gang formation)
moral cover & what is important in providing it
Loyalty…
a moral imperative that supersedes or nullifies the gravity of an act (makes deviant behavior not deviant)
How do ridicule, loyalty and status interact with each other?
While all members of a group seek to avoid ridicule, fear of ridicule also interacts with status as those with greater status have more to lose, thus they take more extreme measures
compliance mechanism
Ex. Loyalty and fear of ridicule - operate to promote conformity, regardless of whether a behavior is legal or not
Magnifying mechanism
Ex. Loyalty & ridicule - can transform the behavior of one (or a few) individuals into the behavior of many
saving face
Among males, in particular, status can lead to direct physical confrontation
What role do witnesses play in peer delinquency?
When others are around, reactions tend to be more aggressive
What roles do alcohol and drug use play in peer delinquency and crime?
Adolescents use it in a group setting (brings them together), stimulate/exacerbate delinquency, commit crime to buy drugs
Routine Activities Theory (Cohen & Felson)
Individuals’ lifestyle influences the likelihood of becoming a victim of criminal activity, including the presence of three factors in particular:
- Motivated offenders
- lack of capable guardian
- Suitable target
Seduction of Crime (Katz)
The exhilaration and excitement that accompanies committing a criminal act can be inherently motivating - related to hedonism.
