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physical anthropology ⋆·˚ ༘ * > ˗ˏˋ evolution forces ´ˎ˗ > Flashcards

˗ˏˋ evolution forces ´ˎ˗ Flashcards

1
Q

what is the universal ancestor?

A

the first living organism, from which all living things are descended.

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2
Q

what are phylogenies?

A

genetically determined family lineages.

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3
Q

what are the origins of life?

A

how the first living organism came into being.

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4
Q

what is the phylogenetic tree of life?

A

a family tree of all living organisms, based on genetic relationships.

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5
Q

what is lamarckian inheritance?

A
  • an idea that offspring inherit any traits their parents picked up during their lifetimes.
  • the giraffes.
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6
Q

what is pangenesis?

A
  • promoted by darwin.
  • an early model for inheritance that combines the lamarckian idea of inheriting acquired characteristics with the idea that particles from different parts of the body make their way to the sex cells.
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7
Q

what is the law of use & disuse?

A

lamarckian idea, supported by darwin, that limbs or organs not used during an organism’s lifetime, would disappear off their offspring.

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8
Q

who is august weismann?

A
  • in 1892 attempted to prove whether or not offspring inherited acquired characteristics.
  • cut tails on mice, bred them, but their offspring still had tails.
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9
Q

what is modern synthesis?

A

the integration of darwin’s, mendel’s, and subsequent research into a unified theory of evolution.

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10
Q

what are polymorphisms?

A

multiple forms of a trait; alternative phenotypes within a given species.

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11
Q

what is a population?

A

a group of individuals of the same species who are geographically near enough to one another that they can breed and produce new generations of individuals.

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12
Q

what is the simple definition of evolution?

A

a change in the allele frequencies in a population over time.

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13
Q

what are allele frequencies?

A

ratio, or percentage, of one allele (one variant of a gene) compared to the other alleles for that gene within the study population.

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14
Q

what are genotype frequencies?

A

ratios or percentages of the different homozygous and heterozygous genotypes in the population.

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15
Q

what are mutationists?

A

group of early biological scientists who believed that variation was caused by mutations in distinct, inherited cells.

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16
Q

what are biometricians?

A

group of early biological scientists who believed that individual mutations of discrete hereditary units could never account for the continuous spectrum of variation seen in many traits.

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17
Q

who revealed the existence of chromosomes?

A

wright and dobzhansky.

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18
Q

what must occur for two organisms to be of the same species?

A
  • viable offspring: offspring that are healthy enough to survive to adulthood.
  • fertile offspring: offspring that can reproduce successfully to have offspring of their own.
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19
Q

what is a subspecies?

A
  • a distinct subtype of a species.
  • geographically isolated population with unique phenotypes; however, it remains biologically and behaviorally capable of interbreeding with other populations of the same species.
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20
Q

what does evolution require?

A
  • population of breeding individuals.
  • some kind of a genetic change.
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21
Q

what are the four forces of evolution?

A
  • mutations
  • genetic drift
  • gene flow
  • natural selection
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22
Q

what is a mutation?

A
  • changes in genetic code.
  • original source of all the genetic variation found in every living thing.
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23
Q

what is a deleterious mutation?

A

mutation producing negative effects to the individual such as the beginnings of cancers or heritable disorders.

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24
Q

what is a beneficial mutation?

A

mutations that produce some sort of an advantage to the individual.

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25
Q

what is a spontaneous mutation?

A
  • a mutation that occurs due to random chance or unintentional exposure to mutagens.
  • in families, it is the first case, as opposed to mutations that are inherited from parents.
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26
Q

what is an inherited mutation?

A

a mutation that has been passed from parent to offspring.

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27
Q

what is UV crosslinking?

A

a type of mutation in which adjacent thymine bases bind to one another in the presence of UV light.

28
Q

what are DNA repair mechanisms?

A

enzymes that patrol and repair DNA in living cells.

29
Q

what is an autosomal recessive disease?

A

a phenotype produced by a gene on an autosomal chromosome that is expressed only in individuals homozygous for the recessive allele.

30
Q

what is xeroderma pigmentosum?

A

an autosomal recessive disease in which DNA repair mechanisms do not function correctly, resulting in a host of problems especially related to sun exposure, including severe sunburns, dry skin, heavy freckling, and other pigment changes.

31
Q

what is a point mutation?

A

a single-letter (single-nucleotide) change in the genetic code, resulting in the substitution of one nucleic acid base for a different one.

32
Q

what is a synonymous mutation?

A

a point mutation that does not change the resulting protein.

33
Q

what is a nonsynonymous mutation?

A

a point mutation that causes a change in the resulting protein.

34
Q

what are insertions?

A

mutations that involve the addition of one or more nucleotides into a DNA sequence.

35
Q

what are deletions?

A

mutations that involve the removal of one or more nucleotides from a DNA sequence.

36
Q

what are transposable elements?

A

fragments of DNA that can “jump” around in the genome.

37
Q

what are indels?

A

short for insertions and deletions.

38
Q

what are frameshift mutations?

A
  • types of indels that involve the insertion or deletion of any number of nucleotides that is not a multiple of three.
  • these “shift the reading frame” and cause all codons beyond the mutation to be misread.
39
Q

what are retrotransposons?

A

transposons that are transcribed from DNA into RNA, and then are “reverse transcribed,” to insert the copied sequence into a new location in the DNA.

40
Q

what are DNA transposons?

A

transposons that are clipped out of the DNA sequence itself and inserted elsewhere in the genome.

41
Q

what are crossover events?

A

chromosomal alterations that occur when DNA is swapped between homologous chromosomes while thy are paired up during meiosis I.

42
Q

what are nondisjunction events?

A

chromosomal abnormalities that occur when the homologous chromosomes (in meiosis I) or sister chromatids (in meiosis II and mitosis) fail to separate after pairing.
- result is that both chromosomes or chromatids end up in the same daughter cell, leaving the other daughter cell without any copy of that chromosome.

43
Q

what are chromosomal translocations?

A

the transfer of DNA between non-homologous chromosomes.

44
Q

what is neurofbromatosis type 1 (NF1)?

A
  • an autosomal dominant genetic disorder affecting one in every 3,000 people.
  • caused by mutation of the NF1 gene on chromosome 17, resulting in a defective neurofibromin protein.
  • characterized by neurofibromas, café-au-lait spots, and a host of other potential symptoms.
45
Q

what is genetic drift?

A

random changes in allele frequencies within a population from one generation to the next.

46
Q

what is asexual reproduction?

A

reproduction via mitosis, whereby offspring are clones of the parents.

47
Q

what is sexual reproduction?

A
  • reproduction via meiosis and combination of gametes.
  • offspring inherit genetic material from both parents.
48
Q

what is ellis-van creveld syndrome?

A
  • an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by short stature (dwarfism), polydactyl (development of more than five digits), abnormal tooth development, and heart defects.
  • affects approx 60,000 individuals worldwide.
  • rate among lancaster amish population is more like 1 in every 200 births.
49
Q

what is gene flow?

A
  • the movement of alleles from one population to another.
  • admixture in humans.
  • hybridization in non-human populations.
50
Q

what is natural selection?

A

an evolutionary process that occurs when certain phenotypes confer an advantage or disadvantage in survival and/or reproductive success.

51
Q

what is directional selection?

A

a pattern of natural selection in which one phenotype is favored over the other, causing the frequencies of the associated advantageous alleles to gradually increase.

52
Q

what is balancing selection?

A

a pattern of natural selection that occurs when the extremes of a trait are selected against, favoring the intermediate phenotype (aka stabilizing selection).

53
Q

what is disruptive selection?

A

a pattern of natural selection that occurs when both extremes of a trait are advantageous and intermediate phenotypes are selected against (aka diversifying selection).

54
Q

what is sickle cell anemia?

A
  • an autosomal recessive genetic disorder that affects millions of people worldwide.
  • most common in africa, countries around the mediterranean sea, and eastward as far as india.
  • homozygotes for the recessive develop the disorder, which produce misshapen red blood cells that cause iron deficiency, painful episodes of oxygen-deprivation in localized tissues, and a host of other symptoms.
  • sickle cell allele confers a greater resistance to malaria.
55
Q

what is sexual selection?

A

an aspect of natural selection in which the selective pressure specifically affects reproductive success (the ability to successfully breed and raise offspring).

56
Q

what is the hardy-weinberg equilibrium?

A
  • mathematical formula that allows estimation of the number and distribution of dominant and recessive alleles in a population.
  • only gives us an estimate based on the data for a snapshot in time.
57
Q

what is microevolution?

A

changes in allele frequencies within breeding populations – that is, within a single species.

58
Q

what is marcoevolution?

A

changes that result in the emergence of new species, the similarities and differences between species, and their phylogenetic relationships with other taxa.

59
Q

what is speciation?

A
  • the process by which a single population divides into two or more separate species.
  • two types: allopatric and sympatric.
60
Q

what is allopatric speciation?

A

speciation caused by long-term isolation (physical separation) of subgroups of the population.

61
Q

what is sympatric speciation?

A

when a population splits into two or more separate species while remaining located together without a physical (or cultural) barrier.

62
Q

what is adaptive radiation?

A

the situation in which subgroups of a single species rapidly diversify and adapt to fill a variety of ecological niches.

63
Q

what is an ecological niche?

A

a set of constraints and resources that are available in an environmental setting.

64
Q

what is positive assortative mating?

A

a pattern that results from a tendency for individuals to mate with others who share similar phenotypes.

65
Q

what is negative assortative mating?

A

a pattern that occurs when individuals tend to select mates with qualities different from their own.

physical anthropology ⋆·˚ ༘ * (23 decks)

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