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2016/2017 > EOS 460 > Flashcards

EOS 460 Flashcards

1
Q

age of universe

A

14 billion years

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2
Q

G

A

giga 10^9

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3
Q

Milky Way size

A

100,000 light years

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4
Q

light year

A

9x10^15 m

3x10^8 m/s)*(3x10^7 s/yr

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5
Q

size of a H nucleus

A

10^ -15 m

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6
Q

size of the universe

A

10^26m

41 orders of magnitude larger than H nucleus

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7
Q

M

A

mega

10^6

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8
Q

reductionism

A

understanding by reducing whole to fundamental laws of physics

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9
Q

chaos

A
  • outcome is sensitive to tiny changes in initial condition or constants
  • long-term prediction impossible
  • weather, butterfly effect
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10
Q

fractal system

A
  • looks the same over a range of scales

- cannot tell size of object without scale bar

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11
Q

problems with reductionism

A
  • gap btw theory and implementation

- cannot see larger scale properties, patterns, relationships

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12
Q

systems thinking

A
  • whole is greater than sum of parts
  • relations btw parts = emergent properties = important info
  • eg. living organisms
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13
Q

Basic principles of systems

A
  • cannot predict full significance of object w/o observing movement
  • full understanding not evident w/o understanding relationship w/ larger system
  • evolution over t of larger rltshp related to larger system
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14
Q

equilibrium

A
  • minimum E state where there is no further tendency to change
  • properties constant
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15
Q

steady-state disequilibrium

A
  • natural systems
  • remain in narrow bounds
  • eg. living organisms
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16
Q

to maintain disequilibrium

A

external E source required

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17
Q

negative feedback

A

response counteracts input

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18
Q

water vapour feedback

A

Increased CO2 –> increased T –> Increased atmospheric water vapour –> increased T –>..

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19
Q

for systems to have longevity they must

A

recycle!

-eg. rock cycle, water cycle

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20
Q

characteristics of natural systems

A
  • in movement (eg. Earths layers all move)
  • sustained by external E source + E flow within (sun, radioactivity)
  • matter cycles within providing sustainability through recycling
  • normally steady-state equil. (eg. narrow range of T’s w/ t)
  • feedback sustain steady-state conditions
  • systems w/i larger systems
  • ∆ w/ t (creation, evolution, death)
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21
Q

Gaia

A

-steady-state disequilibrium characteristic of E’s surface makes it a ‘living organism’

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22
Q

Atomic reaction, time

A

10^ -9s

26 orders of magnitude

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23
Q

K

A

kilo

10^3

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24
Q

Milky way, stars

A

ca. 400 billion

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25
Q

star spectra

A
  • view stars w/ telescopes containing prisms to examine their spectra
  • dark bands break up otherwise continuous colour spectra created in stars atmos. (by absorbing select frequencies of light)
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26
Q

light interacts w/ atoms by

A

exciting electrons to their next available E level

-requires exact right amount of E

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27
Q

the suns light spectrum, name

A

Fraunhofer spectrum

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28
Q

spectral lines of distant stars

A
  • shift toward red
  • ‘bar code’ remains same
  • Doppler effect
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29
Q

Doppler effect

A

sound/light sources travelling away have to travel farther to reach us, causing our sense organisms to detect a lower frequency

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30
Q

Galaxy movement

A

-speeding away from us at 180million mi/hr

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31
Q

Parallax

A
  • measuring distance to stars using ever growing baseline due to movement of sun
  • can measure out to ca 10^15km
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32
Q

Headlight method

A
  • measuring distance to stars in other galaxies by blinking rate
  • stars of same luminosity have same blinking rate
  • determine rate –> use nearby star as proxy to determine luminosity
  • use luminosity to determine distance
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33
Q

The Local Group

A
  • Milky Way
  • Andromeda
  • Triangulum
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34
Q

how to date the beginning

A
  • every galaxy moving apart from starting point at diff. velocities and diff. distances away
  • use distance travelled and speed of travel to determine origin (w/o knowing where origin was)
  • 13.7 by
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35
Q

all objects above 0 K

A

emit radiation relative to their T

  • blackbody radiation
  • can be used to estimate T
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36
Q

λ of emitted radiation

A
  • decreases w/ increased T

- at very low T, light is not visible (us, universe)

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37
Q

Universes λ

A

non-visible glow consistent w/ 2.73K (microwaves)

-after glow of Big Bang

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38
Q

Big Bang support

A
  • velocity/distance rltshp w/ galaxies
  • background radiation of universe
  • chemical composition of universe
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39
Q

dark energy

A
  • exerts expanding force on universe greater than gravitational attraction
  • how universe accelerating expansion is explained
  • 70% of the universe
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40
Q

10kyrs after big bang

A
  • enough cooling for e- to be trapped in orbit around nuclei = H, He
  • gas cloud beings to break up into clusters
  • galaxies evolve
  • stars begin to evolve
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41
Q

Nuclear fusion

A

He – Fe

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42
Q

forming elements > Fe

A
  • star explosion

- supernovae

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43
Q

Terrestrial planet composition

A

mostly: Fe, Mg, Si,, O

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44
Q

stars consist mainly of

A

H, He

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45
Q

how do we know star composition

A

absorption lines in spectra

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46
Q

relative abundance of an element

A

ratio of element : Si

-# of atoms of x per 1 million atoms Si

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47
Q

abundance vs element #

A
  • general decline, overall sawtooth pattern
  • Fe 1000X higher than expected
  • Le, Be, Bo many order of magnitude lower than expected
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48
Q

Elements with odd number of protons

A

lower abundance

=the sawtooth pattern

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49
Q

Nucleus

A

10^ -15m diameter

  • nearly all of atoms mass
  • neutrons + protons
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50
Q

electron cloud

A

10^ -10m

  • most of atoms size
  • almost no mass
  • held together by electrostatic forces
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51
Q

strong force

A

‘gluon’

  • holds protons together despite repulsion
  • stronger than electromagnetic force, gravity
  • must be touching, only over small distances, 10^ -15
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52
Q

Band of stability

A

stable nucleus atoms from H to 209Bi

-most favourable N:Z

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53
Q

beta decay

A

too many N

N –> Z + e-

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54
Q

red giant

A

large

burn through H more rapidly

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55
Q

Nearing completion of H burning

A

nuclear fire decreases – unable to resist gravity – collapse – E release – major increased T and P in core – He fusion – Carbon – stable atoms combine to form new ones (2C = Mg)

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56
Q

electron capture

A

too many Z

Z + e- –> N

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57
Q

alpha decay

A

nuclei too big
eject He (alpha particle)
Z-2, N-2, A -4

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58
Q

Big star

A

++ Gravity, ++ Fire, ++Bright, shorter lifetime, produce and distribute (explosion) all elements

  • very explosive
  • not able to form habitable solar system
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59
Q

escape velocity

A
  • 11km/s
  • velocity required to escape from Earth’s gravitational well
  • impact on volatile accumulation
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60
Q

Objects outside orbit of outer planets, including Pluto

A

Kuiper belt

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61
Q

Major increase in impact events

A

Late Heavy Bombardment

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62
Q

LHB cause

A

J,S passed through a resonance and perturbed small objects, sending them into inner planetary orbit

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63
Q

small stars

A

lower gravity
lower T
stable, billions of years, long-lived system

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64
Q

Why is Mercury more heavily cratered

A

no resurfacing

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65
Q

resurfacing

A
  • tectonics
  • volcanism
  • water
  • biotic
  • vertical tectonics
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66
Q

relative dating of a planet

A

crater density and overlap

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67
Q

why is Mercury so dense

A
  • hug core

- lost large amount of mantle material from impact

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68
Q

Venus atmosphere

A
  • clouds of sulphuric acid
  • 90 bars (90X E’s atmos)
  • low H2O
  • surface 700K
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69
Q

Jupiter atmosphere

A
  • clouds/hazy atmosphere
  • banding (fast rotation)
  • storms
  • H2O
  • ammonia clouds
  • H/He envelope
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70
Q

Io

A
  • Jupiter moon

- volcanos = lot’s of resurfacing = young surface

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71
Q

Europa

A
  • Jupiter moon
  • snowball w/ white/brown ice
  • several km ice overlay liquid ocean
  • potential hydrothermalism
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72
Q

Saturn

A
  • rocky core, H/He envelope
  • lots of rocky/icy moons
  • fluid dynamics, Aurora Borealis (E processes not unique)
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73
Q

Titan

A
  • Saturn moon
  • organics
  • photochemical haze
  • methane lakes
  • dune fields
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74
Q

photoferrotrophy

A

4Fe2+ + CO2 + 11H2O —> CH2O + 4Fe(OH)3 + 8H+

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75
Q

photoferrotrophs

A
  • grow at lower light level than cyano
  • could have maintained atmosphere O2 10% of today
  • keep O2 availability and production low
  • create Fe formations?
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76
Q

origin of oxygenic photosynthesis

A

2.9 Ga

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77
Q

Great oxidation, time

A

2.4 Ga

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78
Q

oxidized Fe

A

insoluble

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79
Q

constructed periodic table

A

Dmitri Mendeleev

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80
Q

Isotope

A

Different # neutrons

chemically same

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81
Q

completely filled electron shells

A

noble gases

non-reactive

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82
Q

determines molecules state under specific T, P

A

volatility

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83
Q

elements with high melting, boiling points

A

refractory elements

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84
Q

mineral

A

naturally occurring, inorganic solid with ordered atomic structure, distinct physical properties, chemical composition that can be written as a molecular formula

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85
Q

physical properties of minerals

A

cleavage, hardness, density, colour, lustre, streak

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86
Q

determine how atoms fit together to form minerals

A

ionic radium

cations > anions (more e-)

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87
Q

most abundant mineral in upper mantle

A

olivine

(Mg/Fe)2SiO4

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88
Q

silicates

A

olivine, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, quartz, feldspars

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89
Q

single chain silicates

A

pyroxenes

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90
Q

non-silicate groups

A

carbonates, suffices, oxides, halides

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91
Q

double chained silicate

A

amphibole

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92
Q

oxides

A

magnetite

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93
Q

micas

A

silicate sheets

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94
Q

organics essential to biology

A

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

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95
Q

3-D silicate framework

A

quartz, feldspar

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96
Q

carbohydrate

A

(CH2O)n

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97
Q

lipid

A

fats, oils, high energy content/gm

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98
Q

proteins

A

chains of amino acids

-made from 20 different aa’s

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99
Q

nucleic acids

A
  • long double helix chains
  • backbone = sugars, phosphate
  • links between chains = bases
100
Q

nucleic acid bases

A

adenine, guanine, thymine, urosil, cytosine

101
Q

solid even to high temperatures

A

refractories

  • solid materials of planets
  • not volatiles
102
Q

stellar fusion =

A

heat + core contraction
= increased speed
= increased luminosity

103
Q

change in luminosity since beginning of main sequence

A

increased 30%

104
Q

FYS

A
  • Sagan, Mullen 1972

- given lower S, why was early E warm?

105
Q

Historical T records

A
  • Isotopes (H, O)
  • Ice core data (ca. 1mill)
  • Forams (150mill)
  • Geological indicators
106
Q

T records from Archaen

A
  • no good isotope data

- ‘normal’ fluvial sediments (not glacial)

107
Q

solutions to FYS

A
  • lower albedo (surface, clouds)
  • stronger greenhouse effect
  • stronger heat transport
  • stellar physics wrong
  • interpretation of records wrong
108
Q

GHG

A

gas that absorbs thermal IR

109
Q

Ammonia

A
  • reduced N
  • 10ppm of NH3 would account for ‘the missing 50’
  • very soluble, likely to dissolve into ocean and not remain in atmosphere
  • photochemically unstable
110
Q

sun composition

A

99% H, He

111
Q

Bode’s Law

A

distance btw orbits of successive planets increases by roughly a factor of 1.7 (assuming M-J asteroid belt is a failed planet)

112
Q

Kant-Laplace model

A
  • planets and sun formed from single flat spinning cloud

- evidence: non-random distribution, spin, coplanarity

113
Q

Planetary mass

A

determined by gravitational influence

114
Q

outer planet composition

A

predominantly ices

115
Q

inner planet composition

A

mixture of oxides, metals

116
Q

planetary density

A
  • depends on element composition and pressure

- consider uncompressed density to make comparable (density at 1 atm)

117
Q

Earth’s uncompressed density

A

4.2 gm/cm^3

118
Q

spherical miners grains unique to meteorites

A

chondrules

119
Q

Moon formation

A
  • mars-sized object impacted Earth
  • chunk flew off and was retained in E’s orbit
  • moon has no core, is similar composition to E’s mantle
120
Q

rocky planets consist mainly of the ‘big four’

A

90% O, Mg, Si, Fe

121
Q

K:U

A
  • extent of volatile depletion
  • closer to sun = lower K:U
  • large difference btw inner/outer planets
122
Q

why does Mercury have such a large core and high density

A

an impact broke off a chunk like E, but it was not retained as a moon

123
Q

carbonate-silicate weathering feedback

A

Increased T – increased weathering – increased CO2 drawdown

124
Q

FYS, CO2

A
  • would need 70,000 ppm for 50 W/m^2
  • paleosol data suggests max of 10,000 ppm
  • maybe CO2 accounts for 25 W/m^2?
125
Q

FYS, other gases

A
  • CH4: 100-1000ppm = 8-15 W/m^2

- +other reduced species as minor constituents (C2H2 = 1ppm, C2H6 = 10ppm)

126
Q

distance from earth to sun

A

1 AU

127
Q

If the solar system started over

A

most likely would not end up the same

128
Q

FYS, clouds

A
  • more low clouds = less (-) forcing
  • less low clouds, more thick high clouds could resolve FYS
  • less land = more clouds
129
Q

was there less landmass in the past

A

yes, time = accretion

Volume of continental crust vs. time = increasing

130
Q

Number of molecules in the atmosphere

A

more atmosphere, more molecules = more scattering = higher albedo = lower T

131
Q

FYS, N

A
  • higher [N] would increase atmosphere molecules
  • increased molecules = increased collisions = increased GHG molecule absorption
  • make sure to read more about this
132
Q

Earth radius

A

6371 km

133
Q

Earth density

A

5.25 g/cm^3
surface rocks = 2.7
core = 11

134
Q

core-mantle boundary

A
  • Gutenberg discontinuity

- density jump 6-10 g/cm^3

135
Q

Earthquake waves

A
  • Compressional: material moves forward/back in direction of wave
  • Shear: material moves perpendicular to direction of wave
  • Surface: pass around surface rather than through interior
136
Q

Shadow zone

A

regions where shear waves do not appear (105-140º from origin)

137
Q

crustal thickness

A

35km beneath continents

6km beneath ocean

138
Q

crust-mantle discontinuity

A

Mohorovic

2.7 - 3.3 g/cm^3

139
Q

Mantle

A

solid

2900km

140
Q

outer core

A

liquid

2100km

141
Q

inner core

A

solid
1000km
Lehman discontinuity btw inner/outer core

142
Q

core elements

A

Fe, Ni, some lighter ones

143
Q

crust elements

A

mostly granite: quartz, feldspar

some pyroxenes, amphiboles: Fe-Mg minerals

144
Q

Atmophiles

A

volatiles, liquid/gas under E conditions
eg. noble gases, H2O, CO2, N2
low density
concentrated in ocean, atmosphere

145
Q

lithophile

A
  • prefer silicates
  • concentrate in mantle, crust
    eg. Si, Mg, O2, Ca, Al, Ti
146
Q

Siderophile

A

prefer metallic state

eg. Ni, Au, Ag, Cu, Fe, Pt

147
Q

Chalcophile

A

sulphur loving

-Pb, Cu, Zn, Pt, As

148
Q

uniquely falls into 3 of the element groups

A

Fe - chalcophile, siderophile, lithophile

149
Q

magmaphile

A

subset of lithophiles that concentrate into silicate liquid

150
Q

core/mantle separation hypotheses

A
  • heterogeneous accretion model

- homogeneous accretion model

151
Q

heterogeneous accretion model

A
  • different minerals added w/ time

- metal first to form core, then silicates, then volatiles

152
Q

homogeneous accretion

A
  • materials accreted homogeneously then separated into layers over first few 10My
  • metals sunk into core (more dense and immiscible w/ silicates)
153
Q

pressure release melting

A

rocks that are solid at depth may melt if exposed to surface from reduced P (minerals crossing the solidus)

154
Q

mantle melting forms

A

basalts

155
Q

basalt melting forms

A

granites

156
Q

granites melting form

A

granites

157
Q

largest CO2 reservoir in crust

A

limestone

158
Q

volatile-containing mineral weathering

A

degassing

159
Q

redbed

A

sandstone w/ red oxidized Fe cement = oxidized E

160
Q

BIF

A
  • reduced Fe, soluble

- indicative of deep ocean anoxia

161
Q

mass-independent fractionation of S isotopes

A

MIF
-increased ∆33S implies lack of UV-shieldind
= lack of O3
= [O2] less than 10^-5

162
Q

where did the O2 come from

A
  • burial of OM = free O2
  • H escape increases O2
  • oxygenic photosyn from 2.9 Ga
163
Q

H escape

A
  • must get very high in atmos to escape
  • H2O decreases w/ altitude
  • H2O is relatively ‘safe’ from photolysis in troposphere due to O3 – but if there is no O3…
164
Q

how to find other orbiting planetary systems

A
  • look for light of star to dim as planet passes in front of it
  • will only work if planets orbit in our plane
  • more likely to see planets that orbit more quickly (more dimming of the light)
165
Q

TRAPPIST -1

A
  • terrestrial exoplanets
  • 2500K star (vs sun = 5900K)
  • 1-20day orbit
  • 39 light years away
166
Q

exoplanet

A

planet that orbits a star other than the sun

167
Q

the habitable zone

A
  • goldilocks zone of insolation
  • presence of liquid water not strongly excluded by theory
  • water-based life could exist
168
Q

Earth unique feature

A

surface conditions are around the triple point for water

169
Q

inner edge of habitable zone

A

threshold for runaway greenhouse

170
Q

runaway greenhouse

A

260bar of ocean into atmosphere
bake off all limestone
major CO2 inputs

171
Q

planets moons

A
  • 6/8 planets have moons (Merc, Ven = 0)
  • Jupiter: 63, Io, Europa, Callisto, 2 bigger than Merc.
  • Uranus: 27
  • Neptune: 13, Triton
  • Mars: 2 very small
172
Q

Io

A

smooth surface, high volcanism

173
Q

Europa

A

covered in moving, deforming ice

174
Q

outer planet moons

A

mostly low density, consistent w/ cold env’t formation

175
Q

prograde orbit

A

circle planet in same direction planet is rotating

176
Q

Triton

A

18% > Pluto

177
Q

farthest part of the solar system

A

oort cloud

billions of objets

178
Q

Earth’s moon

A
  • only larger inner planet moon
  • unique density, lower than planet (3.1)
  • 1% off circular orbit
  • 40 - 100Ma younger than chondrites
179
Q

Possible effects of giant impact events in early solar system history

A
  • Earth’s moon
  • Mercury’s oversized core
  • large differences btw Mars hemispheres
  • reverse rotation of Venus
  • horizontal spin axis of Uranus
180
Q

LHB

A
  • late heavy bombardment
  • dozens of impact craters >300km
  • 3.9-3.8 Ga
  • planetary orbit realignment – unstabalize asteroid belt – particularly when J:S = 1:2
181
Q

moon moving away from E

A

38 mm/yr

182
Q

implication of moon moving away

A

several hundred million years ago:

  • more days and months /year
  • shorter days, E spinning faster
  • greater tides, higher energy shorelines
183
Q

oldest E sediment

A

3.8 Ga
Isua formation, greenland
Cherts, carbonates, BIFs (all require H2O_l to form)

184
Q

Escape velocity

A

E: 11.2 km/s
J: 60 km/s
moon: 2.4 km/s – insufficient to hold atmos.

185
Q

Earth atmosphere composition

A

N2 78%
O2 21%
Ar 1%
CO2 0.04%

186
Q

water trap

A

top of Earth’s troposphere ca. 60ºC, virtually no H2O_v can exist

187
Q

If Earth were a blackbody, T would be

A

5ºC

188
Q

Earth albedo

A

0.3

189
Q

If only albedo influenced T

A

Earths T would be -20ºC

190
Q

earth mean surface T

A

15ºC

191
Q

FYS, present atmosphere

A

Earth’s T would have been below freezing

192
Q

molecule with high GHG effect

A

H2O_v

193
Q

weathering

A

3H2O + 2CO2 + CaSiO3 –> Ca2+ + 2HCO3- + H4SiO4

194
Q

Mineral precipitation

A

Ca2+ +2HCO3- –> CaCO3 + H2O + CO2

195
Q

weathering depends on

A

T, acidity, amount of rainfall

196
Q

evidence Venus lost H2O_l to H escape

A

100-fold enrichment of D to H

197
Q

The Great Oxidation

A

-2.4Ga
-Corg buried fraction has not changed
-

198
Q

what you need to make a MIF

A
  • no ozone (need the UV to make it)

- reducing atmosphere

199
Q

moon hemispheres

A

lunar maria

lunar highlands

200
Q

all moon geochemistry comes from

A

390kg of rock from one hemisphere

201
Q

what is a climate model

A
  • breaks down problem into simplified parts to try to understand how it operated in the past or future
  • mathmatical representation of our physical understanding of the climate system fitted to physical laws
202
Q

snowball Earth

A
  • frozen ocean - no calcite precip/burial
  • CO2 accumulation in atmos.
  • sediment evidence: glacial deposits intermixed w/ marine sediment (glaciers reach sea level)
  • 10Ma for CO2 to build up enough to melt
203
Q

magnetic field

A
  • Earth’s larges of terrestrial planets
  • from convection of liquid outer core
  • some UV protection
204
Q

habitability depends on

A
  • adequate volatiles
  • liquid water
  • constant T
  • sufficient mass- to retain atmosphere
205
Q

4 kinds of planetary change

A
  • Random: meteorite, volcanic outbursts
  • Biological: species so successful it has planetary impacts
  • Inadvertent: so good at solving local problems they unknowingly cause global impact (vehicles)
  • Intentional: energy use choices
206
Q

The Anthropocene Dilemma

A

your sphere of influence exceeds your sphere of awareness

207
Q

Anthropocene a new epoch or eon?

A

-much bigger deal if Eon - only 4 in all of E’s history - the fundamental planetary changes

208
Q

Evidence of redox state

A
  • redbeds, BIFs
  • detrital minerals
  • minerals in palaeosols
  • S isotopes
  • trace metal abundances
209
Q

water present

A
  • at least as early as 4Ga

- Zr show possibility of liquid water at 4.4Ga

210
Q

S has decreased

A

30% !

211
Q

Earth Ts

A

appear to have remained w/i 0-100ºC through geo time

212
Q

older of age of surface, oldest to youngest

A

Mercury, Mars, Earth, Venus

213
Q

Pangea break-up

A

225Ma

214
Q

thickness of lithospehre

A

increases linearly w/ square root of age

215
Q

K/T extinction

A
  • volcanism caused instability

- meteor exacerbated the problem

216
Q

P/T extinction

A

-no impact evidence

217
Q

mean ocean depth

A

5000m

218
Q

continental drift theory

A
  • Alfred Wegener, 1912
  • fit continents together by looking at continental margins
  • formations, fossils across ocean basins matched
  • glacial deposits in Africa, SA
  • plate tectonics unknown at this time
219
Q

spreading rates

A

-1-20cm /yr

220
Q

Benioff zones

A

-fault between descending ocean crust and overlying mantle in a subduction zone

221
Q

plate tectonics

A
  • Mt belts built at convergent margins
  • volcanic mt ranges caused by subduction
  • oceans are continually forming and recycled
  • earthquakes and volcanoes are the result of plate movement and mantle convection
  • oceans deepen away from MOR b/c plate is progressively thickened as it is cooled
222
Q

age of ocean floor

A

max ca. 150 million years (4% of E’s history)

223
Q

flow in response to density differences

A

convection

224
Q

high Rayleigh numbers mean

A
  • convection occurs
  • temperature differences, thermal expansion, density differences
  • R >2000 convection inevitable
  • R_mantle = 1million +
225
Q

Earth’s volcanism is focused

A
  • at plate boundaries (90%)

- intraplate/hot spot volcanoes important also (Hawaii, Yellowstone)

226
Q

Ocean ridge key points

A
  • ridge geochem processes sustain chemical composition of ocean
  • storage/transport of H2O/elements to subd zone permits volcanism, continental growth
  • role in carbon cycle and climate stability
  • possible role in origins of life
227
Q

subduction earthquakes

A

110km above benioff zone

228
Q

oldest rocks

A

Acosta Gneiss, Canada

4.03 Ga

229
Q

Early atmosphere [O2]

A

less than 10^-10 PAL

230
Q

Earth energy revolutions

A
  1. autotrophy
  2. oxygenic photosynthesis
  3. oxygenic respiration
231
Q

lag in atmosphere oxygenation

A
  • reduced S/Fe reservoirs were a large O2 sink

- reservoirs had to become saturated before atmosphere could accumulate O2

232
Q

which period did reptiles first appear

A

carboniferous

233
Q

stratigraphic scale of mass extinctions

A

cm’s

234
Q

land plants first in record

A

silurian

235
Q

ATP from aerobic respiration

A

36

236
Q

ATP from fermentation

A

2

237
Q

placer deposit

A

fluvial gravel deposit

238
Q

four fundamental forces increasing in relative strength

A

gravity, weak, electromagnetic, strong

239
Q

what determines how elements fit together in minerals

A

ionic radius

240
Q

where have the most meteorites been found

A

antarctica

241
Q

largest astroid

A

Ceres

242
Q

how is lunar regression measured

A

bouncing light of a mirror on the moon

243
Q

proportion of volcanic output from MORs

A

80%

244
Q

on what timescale is an ocean of water cycled through the terrestrial freshwater system

A

30,000 yrs

245
Q

residence time of Na in ocean

A

47Myr

2016/2017 (15 decks)

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