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2016/2017 > 370 > Flashcards

370 Flashcards

1
Q

Are we in the midst of a sixth mass extinction study

A

Life threatened
Birds 13%
Mammals 25%
Amphibians 41%

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2
Q

The major threats to nature

A
  1. Habitat loss and degradation
  2. Overexploitation
  3. Invasive species
  4. Climate change
  5. Nitrogen depostion
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3
Q

other threats to nature

A

pollution
disease
overuse of freshwater
cumulative impacts

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4
Q

habitat degradation most detrimental to what kinds of species

A

specialists

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5
Q

biggest threat that invasive species have

A

threaten biodiversity by predation and competition

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6
Q

biggest threat from nitrogen deposition

A

ozone depletion

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7
Q

agriculture use

A

1/3 of earths ice-free land

much of the other 2/3 is not suitable for agriculture

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8
Q

human population growth

A

exponential
> 7 billion, almost 8
after 1960 +1billion/ 10-15years

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9
Q

Human population 2050

A

9-12 billion ppl

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10
Q

all the people on Earth could fit in

A

1 cubic mile

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11
Q

what does the volumetric size of the worlds population show us

A

There are really not that many humans, our choices are the problem

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12
Q

affluence

A

wealth

consumption of fuel, clothing, food, toys, etc.

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13
Q

affluence and population growth

A

wealth increases child survivorship, decreased child mortality = decreased birth rate

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14
Q

Demographic transition

A

birth/death rates vs years
pre-transition stage- Brate=Drate, pop low
early trans.- Drate plunges, Brate constant, pop starts to increase
mid transition- Brate drops, pop asymptotes
late transition- Brate=Drate lower than before, pop stabilizes

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15
Q

Ecological impacts of a species on its environment

A

Total Impact (resource use) = abundance x per-capita resource use

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16
Q

Can we use resources faster than they are supplied?

A

only by drawing down the capital, which will not last forever

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17
Q

IPAT model of human impact on the environment

A

Impact = human Population size (P) x per capita Affluence (A) x Technology factor (T)

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18
Q

The Kuznets Curve

A

environmental degradation vs per capita income

parabola, environment worsens up to turning point then improves with further income

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19
Q

what happens after turning point in kuznets curve

A

wealthy enough to invest in saving the environment

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20
Q

validity of kuznet hypothesis

A

pretty optimistic

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21
Q

where is the human footprint highest

A

terrestrially - along the coastlines, low latitudes marine - most of the worlds ocean, lowest around Antarctica

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22
Q

conservation science

A

seeks to understand human impact on species, habitats, ecosystems, and provide tools for protecting and restoring those parts of nature that we value

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23
Q

what is demographic transition

A

pattern of changes in human birth and death rates as societies become more economically developed

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24
Q

demography

A

study of population traits such as abundance, age structure, sex ratio, rates of birth and death

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25
Q

what happens in early stage demographic transition

A

births&raquo_space; deaths due to improved living conditions, population explodes

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26
Q

world population growth rate

A

currently: 1.2%
peak: 2.1% 1965-1970

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27
Q

does the decreased population growth rate mean that population is not growing as much

A

no b/c base is increasing, growth rate is a lower % of a much larger number

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28
Q

population additions 1960s, now

A

1960: 72.5 million /yr
now: 86 mill ppl/yr

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29
Q

problem with IPAT model

A

may be viewed as anti-pop. growth and anti-consumption

tech can be + also

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30
Q

benefits of ecosystem change

A

improvements in health: increased life expectancy, reduced child mortality
access to information: increased telephone use
increased wealth

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31
Q

main drivers of all human impacts

A
  1. size of human population
  2. per capita rate of consumption
  3. environmental effects of the tech used
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32
Q

what is the role of conservation science

A

to determine how human disturbances are altering natural systems and predict future impacts by analyzing quantitative data

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33
Q

goals of conservation science

A

determine most effective conservation actions

provide objective discussion of consequences and trade-offs

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34
Q

background rate of extinction

A

rate between periods of mass extinctions

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35
Q

deep roots of conservation

A

Aristotle (384-322BC)
King Philip IV, France (1268-1314)
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

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36
Q

King Philip IV conservation

A

restricted types of traps, nets, and seasons for fishing in 1289 after realizing fishermen were decreasing the amount of fish in the rivers

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37
Q

Charles Darwin conservation views

A

scientific value: “the rescue and protection of these animals is recommended less on account of their utility.. than on account of the great scientific interest attached to them.”

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38
Q

Important groups in 19th century American conservation

A
  1. The Romantic-Transcendental conservation ethic
  2. The resource conservation ethic
  3. The evolutionary-ecological land ethic
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39
Q

Romantic-transcendental conservation

A

The Preservationists
Henry David Thoreau
John Muir
Ralph Waldo Emerson

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40
Q

Preservationist beliefs

A

nature feeds our soul, spiritual romantic values

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41
Q

Thoreau

A

1817-1862

recognized and wrote about beauty of nature before people thought about or cared about it

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42
Q

Muir

A

1838-1941
activist
helped bring about preservation of Yosemite

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43
Q

Resource conservation ethic

A

The Conservationist

Gifford Pinchot

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44
Q

Conservationist beliefs

A

utilitarian, we should protect nature for its resources

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45
Q

Evolutionary-Ecological Land ethic

A

Aldo Leopold
recognize the need to consider systems, and relationship between parts, ties beauty and usefulness together, lead to CB as we know it

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46
Q

Rachel Carson

A

1907-1964
Silent Spring
call to arms, led to precautionary principle

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47
Q

precautionary principle

A

we should not carry out actions that could be harmful to health/ environment if the effects are not fully established

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48
Q

Fundamental conservation biologists, 1960-1980s

A

Michael Soulé
Jane Goodall
EO Wilson
David Suzuki

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49
Q

why did conservation biology arise

A
  • in 1980s ecologists were concerned about human impacts

- inadequacy of existing disciplines

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50
Q

Conservation biology is made up of

A 
biological science (ecology, evolution, genetics)
applied science (forestry, fisheries, agriculture)
physical science (climate, atmos, soil)
social science (economics, law, politics, ethics)
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51
Q

conservation biology is a mission-oriented science

A

focus on how to protect and restore biodiversity, diversity of life on earth

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52
Q

general questions conservation biologists must answer

A
  1. how is diversity of life distributed
  2. what threads does diversity face
  3. what can be done to reduce/eliminate threats and restore diversity
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53
Q

Conservation Biology’s ethical principals

A
  1. Biodiversity should be preserved
  2. evolution should continue
  3. ecological complexity should be maintained
  4. biological diversity has intrinsic value
  5. people must be included in conservation planning
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54
Q

qualities of conservation biology

A 
'crisis' discipline
largely reactive rather than pro-active
'mission-driven' 
multi-disciplinary
encompasses all diversity
inexact science
evolution time-scale
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55
Q

Prevailing view of conservation through time

A

1960-70: nature for itself
1980-90: nature despite people
2000-05: nature for people
2010: nature and people

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56
Q

resilience

A

how much we can perturb the system before it switches to a new state

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57
Q

NCS

A

new conservation science

needs of humans should be prioritized over intrinsic values

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58
Q

what is wrong with NCS claims

A

conservation already considers humans, is realistic, and has succeeded in the past
humans views change with time

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59
Q

Important conservation organizations

A 
Audubon (1886)
Sierra Club (1892)
IUCN (1934)
Ducks Unlimited (1938)
The Nature Conservancy (1951)
WWF (1961)
Society for Conservation Biology (1985)
Conservation International (1987)
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60
Q

Conservation Landmarks

A 
US Endangered Species Act (1973)
Rio Earth Summit (1992)
Kyoto Protocol (1997)
Species at risk act (2002)
Earth Summit (2012)
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61
Q

Conservation in Canada

A 
Control of species consumption (1800s)
Banff National Park (1887)
Commission of Conservation (1909)
Point Pelee National Park (1919)
National Parks Act (1930)
COSEWIC (1977)
Canadian Biodiversity strategy (1995)
Species At Risk Act (2002)
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62
Q

Commission of Conservation, Canada

A

1909

efficiency of natural resource use

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63
Q

Point Pelee National Park

A

1919

focused on wildlife habitat (migratory birds) rather than commercial benefits

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64
Q

National Parks Acts

A

1930

systematic protection from development

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65
Q

COSEWIC

A

Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada

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66
Q

What role does conservation science play in protecting biodiversity

A
  • illuminates biodiversity patterns, threats, solutions

- informs policy decisions

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67
Q

Policy decisions should

A

protect biodiversity based on economics, politics, societal values

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68
Q

Sciences key role in conservation

A 
clarify: 
effect of current activities
which actions are most effective
provide: 
objective discussion
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69
Q

Pleistocene overkill hypothesis

A

widespread and catastrophic extinctions of large land-dwelling mammals to early human hunting

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70
Q

Where was Pleistocene overkill

A

Australia 40-70kya
NA 11kya
NZ 1kya
everywhere humans emigrated

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71
Q

extinctions ‘known’ to be directly from hunting

A

dod
stellar’s sea cow
caribbean monk seal
passenger pigeon

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72
Q

functionally extinct

A

no longer serving the ecological role they once did

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73
Q

example of functionally extinct species

A

American Bison

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74
Q

Major habitats lost (>40%)

A

mediterranean woodlands
temperate grasslands
temperate broadleaf forests

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75
Q

Conservation in Canada has historically been

A

utilitarian

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76
Q

biodiversity

A
  • variability among organisms and the ecological complexes they are part of
  • diversity within species, between species, of ecosystems
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77
Q

compositional levels of biodiversity

A

genetic diversity
species diversity
community/ecosystems diversity

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78
Q

Hierarchical components of biodiversity

A

3 nested groups: compositional, structural, functional

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79
Q

structural component of biodiversity

A

genetic, population, habitat structure, landscape patterns

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80
Q

Compositional component of biodiversity

A

genes
species, populations
communities, ecosystems
landscape types

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81
Q

functional component of biodiversity

A

genetic processes
demographic processes, life histories
interspecific interaction, ecosystem processes
landscape processes, disturbances

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82
Q

components of biodiversity the public responds to the most

A

compositional - genes, species, populations, communities, ecosystems

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83
Q

fundamental unit of conservation

A

generally the species

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84
Q

biological species definition

A

a group of individuals that interbreed in the wild to produce viable, fertile, offspring

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85
Q

problem with biological species definition

A

some ‘non-natural’ groups breed and produce fertile offspring
ex. Red Wolf (maybe)
asexual producers

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86
Q

morphological species definition

A

morphologically, physiologically, biochemically distinct from other groups in some important characteristic

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87
Q

problems with morphological species definition

A

some species have huge variation (dogs, humans)

cryptic species

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88
Q

phylogenetic species concept

A

because of relatedness share at least one morphological or molecular trait that is absent in other potentially related groups

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89
Q

problem with cryptic species

A

can mask threats to 1 species if 2+ are thought to be the same

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90
Q

Number of named species on Earth

A

ca. 2 million

> 1.5 mill

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91
Q

number of species described per year

A

ca. 18,000/yr

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92
Q

How many species are there on Earth

A

3-30million

best estimate ca. 5million ± 3

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93
Q

most specious taxa on earth

A

insects - estimated to be nearly 1 million

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94
Q

Lesula

A

a new species of monkey described in 2012 from congo

even vertebrates are still being discovered

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95
Q

best described taxa on earth

A

Plantae! easy to see, don’t move around

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96
Q

synonymy =

A

taxonomic inflation

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97
Q

taxonomic inflation

A

looks like there are more species than there are b/c some species are named more than ones

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98
Q

% of taxa likely to be synonyms

A
  1. 9% species

7. 4% genus

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99
Q

why does synonymy occur

A 
large range species
generalists
intra-specific variation 
poor communication between scientists 
few/poor reference collections
phenotypic plasticity
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100
Q

example of synonymy

A

European mussel
Anodonta cygnea
described 549 times!

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101
Q

species accumulation curve

A 
# species vs # of samples 
when graph starts to asymptote then getting close to the true number of species
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102
Q

most well known biodiversity pattern

A

biodiv inversely proportional to latitude
species increase towards equator
seen in amphibians, plants, fish, endemics, bivalves, corals, mangroves, seagrasses

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103
Q

where are endemic species highest

A

low latitudes

islands, isolated ecosystems

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104
Q

general biodiversity patterns

A
  1. Latitudinal diversity gradient
  2. species-energy relationship
  3. species-area relationship
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105
Q

latitudinal diversity gradient

A

species richness vs latitude

parabola, increasing from -90 - 0, hump, decreasing from 0 -90º

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106
Q

species-energy relationship

A

sun –> energy –> PP –> more species
SR vs evapotranspiration
increasing power function

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107
Q

evapotranspiration

A

water transfer from soil to atmosphere by plant transpiration
proxy for productivity

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108
Q

species-area relationship

A 
# species vs area
increasing exponential fn
more space = more complex relationships, more room for large animals
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109
Q

diversity and scales

A

relationships can vary based on scale

local patterns may not reflect the larger scale pattern

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110
Q

result of species-area hypothesis

A

tropics are largest biome

relates to latitudinal diversity gradients

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111
Q

results of species-climate stability hypothesis

A

tropics have more stable climate

relates to latitudinal diversity gradient

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112
Q

results of species- climate harshness hypothesis

A

few species can tolerate cold

relates to latitudinal diversity gradient

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113
Q

results of species energy hypothesis

A

tropics have greatest productivity

relates to latitudinal diversity gradient

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114
Q

hypotheses that support latitudinal-diversity gradient

A

species-area Ho
species-climate stability Ho
Species-climate harshness Ho
Species-energy Ho

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115
Q

what is a stable habitat

A
  • stable in physicochemical characteristic - temp, precipitation
  • stable through time
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116
Q

why are tropics stable through time

A

low latitudes are less likely to be covered and ‘reset’ by glaciations

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117
Q

species diversity

A

number and relative frequencies of species in a given community

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118
Q

ways to describe species diversity

A

species richness

species evenness

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119
Q

species evenness

A

equitability of abundance across species

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120
Q

why local diversity patterns may show increased diversity

A

addition of invasives

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121
Q

homogenization

A

biodiversity crisis is homogenizing the world because generalists and species with large ranges have the advantage

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122
Q

Three types of species diversity

A

Alpha diversity
Beta diversity
Gamma diversity

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123
Q

importance of diveristy

A

buffers attacks to survivability

increases resilience

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124
Q

% polymorphic loci

A

a measure of genetic diversity

ex. rats have very high genetic diversity - high resilience

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125
Q

Alpha diversity

A

species we find in one specific place
local, within
eg. Saanich Peninsula

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126
Q

Beta diversity

A

species we find in an entire region
within, larger scale
eg. VI

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127
Q

Gamma diversity

A

difference in species between two places

eg. differences between Saanich Peninsula and Strathcona Park

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128
Q

focusing on species protection

A

may miss out on important environments, related organisms

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129
Q

units to protect

A

species, biome, ecoregion

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130
Q

ecoregion

A

large area characterized by similar mix of environmental conditions that contains relatively distinct flora and fauna

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131
Q

major ecoregion of the world

A 
oceania realm
nootropic realm
afrotropic realm
antarctic realm
indo-malay realm
australasia realm 
nearctic realm
palearctic realm
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132
Q

Major biomes of the world

A 
tropical rain forest
tropical seasonal forest/ savannah
woodland/shrubland
temperate grassland/ desert
boreal forest
subtropic desert
temperate rain forest
temperate seasonal forest
tundra
alpine 
polar ice cap
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133
Q

Large marine ecosystems

A

regions of ocean encompassing coastal areas out to edge of continental shelves
ca. 200,000 km2

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134
Q

large marine ecosystems are characterized by distinct

A

bathymetry
hydrography
productivity
tropically dependent populations

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135
Q

values of biodiversity

A

intrinsic value

instrumental value

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136
Q

intrinsic value

A

biodiversity is valuable independent of its value to humans

organisms have a right to survive

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137
Q

instrumental value

A

humans value of biodiversity

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138
Q

types of instrumental biodiversity value

A 
Aesthetic, cultural, spiritual
Goods
water/air purification, flood control, pollination
recreational
education, informational
139
Q

biodiversity goods uses

A

consumptive use

productive use

140
Q

what is consumptive use

A

goods used directly by local communities and invisible to GDP
hard to quantify, attach value to
eg. food, fiber, medicine, fuel
raw products, oxygen

141
Q

productive use

A

value added goods, ‘in the system’, visible to GDP

finished foods and material , sold in a market

142
Q

problem with intrinsic value

A

difficult to convince people of!

143
Q

bioprospecting

A

sample, extract, study, test, unstudied organisms (plants) for value
biological mining

144
Q

plant species that have led to drug discoveries

A

1/125

145
Q

% of pharmaceuticals based on organism products

A

79%

based on plants, fungi, bacteria, verts

146
Q

how many plant species have been examined for medicinal properties

A

less than 0.5%

147
Q

examples of plants leading to medicinal discoveries

A 
Willow (Salix spp) -- Acetylsalicylic acid
Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) -- Taxol cancer treatment
148
Q

Ideas behind instrumental valuation of biodiversity

A

adding value to biodiversity in order to get people to ‘buy in to conservation’

149
Q

ecosystem services

A

essential goods, service, natural ecosystems deliver to people

150
Q

Types of marine ecosystem services

A

Provisioning services
regulating devices
cultural services
supporting services

151
Q

marine ecosystem provisioning services

A

seafood
timber, fiber
pharmaceuticals

152
Q

marine ecosystem, regulating services

A

water quality control

climate regulation

153
Q

marine ecosystem, cultural services

A

tourism, recreation

aesthetics, spiritual values

154
Q

marine ecosystem, supporting services

A

nursery habitats

155
Q

marine and terrestrial ecosystem link

A

Earth system, tightly linked, support each other

eg. salmon - river- riparian - forest

156
Q

habitat loss concerns

A

leading cause of extinctions/ endangerment
loss of beauty, rec, inspiration
important roles

157
Q

what roles do habitats play

A

carbon sequestration
reduce flooding
storme surge protection
maintain soils

158
Q

problems with invasive species

A 
weeds
insect pests
vectors of disease
clog waterways 
change fire frequency
alter ecosystem processes 
global homogenization
159
Q

changes in CO2

A

1960 - 280ppm
2013 - 395ppm
now - 0ver 400
increase 0.5-1% /yr

160
Q

changes in world temperature

A

1951-2012 0.12ºC increase / decade

161
Q

shifts in spring behaviours

A

2-3 day shift / decade

162
Q

species range shifts

A

poleword 10km/ day

163
Q

other climate change impacts

A 
nitrogen cycle alteration
O3 depletion
acid rain
algal blooms
eutrophication
anoxia
164
Q

anthropocene

A

an era in which anthropogenic impacts dominate

165
Q

cryptic species effect on species number

A

if not recognized than species # lower
once recognized species # increased
recognized more now with DNA analysis

166
Q

Largest extinction

A

P-T, 250Mya, formation of Pangaea, 96% of species lost

167
Q

trait most strongly associated with extinction

A

body size

168
Q

KT extinction

A

65Mya
dinosaur extinction
start of age of mammals

169
Q

species at greatest risk

A

specialists - limited resources

endemics - limited habitat

170
Q

with accelerated extinction levels what should we expect to see in the future

A

small bodied, widespread, generalist species

171
Q

hybridization occurs most

A

in endangered populations

generally leads to lower fitness

172
Q

insurance

A

biodiversity

173
Q

negative externalities

A

environmental harm/damage from exploitation that impacts others who had no choice in the matter

174
Q

problems with ES and negative externalities

A

human-centered, no biodiversity focus
can be seen as disingenuous
can backfire

175
Q

what should we conserve

A

particular species, number of species, endemics, threatened species, number of ecosystems, threatened or special ecosystems, biodiversity hotspots, evolutionary uniqueness

176
Q

biodiversity hotspots

A

> 2500 endemic plant species
70% loss of original habitat
eg madagascar

177
Q

Madagascar

A

90% loss of rainforest

12,000 endemic plant species

178
Q

problem with conserving hotspots

A

narrow focus on species richness and threat
whole ecosystems can be overlooked
ignores cost effectiveness and feasibility
spatial scale

179
Q

incongruence

A

species richness, hotspots, endemism, threats do not always line up

180
Q

some conservation frameworks

A 
biodiversity hotspots
crisis ecoregion
endemic bird areas
megadiversity countries
WWFs global 200
high-biodiversity wild
frontier forests 
last of the wild
181
Q

aligning conservation frameworks

A

Irreplaceability vs. vulnerability
low vulnerability = proactive approach
high vulnerability = reactive approach

182
Q

“Last of the Wild” conservation framework

A

Wildlife conservation society
areas with lowest human ecological footprint
less likely to obscure by conflicts and proposals of human infrastructure, may maintain status for long time

183
Q

conservation funding

A

90% of the $6B of funding originates in and is spent in economically rich countries
ca. $600 million ‘flexible’ funds

184
Q

prioritization schemes important for

A

justifying and obtaining funding

185
Q

focal species

A 
flagship species
umbrella species
indicator species
keystone species
dominant species
foundation species
ecosystem engineer
186
Q

flagship species

A

‘easy’ to protect, special charismatic or cultural value
strategic concept for raising public awareness and financial support
often: large, ferocious, cuddly, cute

187
Q

umbrella species

A

conservation of an organism protects a number of others, typically have large or unique habitat needs

188
Q

Indicator species

A

most sensitive to perturbation or habitat-of-concern, canary in the coal mine

189
Q

keystone species

A

species whose impact on its ecosystem is disproportionately large relative to its abundance

190
Q

dominant species

A

species with large impact on ecosystem because of its high abundance

191
Q

example of flagship species

A

panda

192
Q

example of umbrella species

A

grizzly bear, if we seek to conserve their habitat it is a large area of forest that could also protect others like owls and even the plants

193
Q

example of indicator species

A

owls

194
Q

importance of indicator species

A

they tell us about the health of the ecosystem

195
Q

keystone species example

A

sea otter - kelp - sea urchin

196
Q

example of dominant species

A

bunny

bison

197
Q

foundation species

A

dominant autotrophs the rest of the ecosystem depends upon

198
Q

foundation species example

A

kelp
pines
sea grass
mangroves

199
Q

ecosystem engineer

A

species that modifies the habitat in a way that impacts others

200
Q

example of ecosystem engineer

A

beaver

elephant

201
Q

example of evolutionary uniqueness

A

Tuatara

202
Q

other protection units

A

unique biological processes (ex monarchs)

migratory routes

203
Q

what to protect if focused on ecosystem function

A

the ecosystem, some % of species everywhere, not focus on biodiversity or certain species

204
Q

what factor is consistently overlooked in conservation prioritization

A

COST
feasibility
return on investment

205
Q

cost

A

-purchase
-management
costs can vary more than diversity

206
Q

feasibility

A

governance, law and order, corruption
peace
capacity (literacy, education)

207
Q

Wildlife Conservation Societies ‘global priority species’

A 
broad geographic range
evolutionarily distinctive
ecologically important 
important to humans
need conservation action
208
Q

prioritization schemes typically based upon

A

some measures of biodiversity and threat often in a framework of vulnerability and irreplaceability, may be be proactive or reactive, individual and subjective

209
Q

prioritization scheme pro

A

proven useful in mobilizing funding

210
Q

prioritization scheme con

A

do not make best use of conservation $$, do not factor in ROI (return on investment)

211
Q

to maximize conservation success

A

biological factors, cost, and feasibility must be taken into account

212
Q

globally extinct

A

no individuals remain anywhere in the world

213
Q

extinct in the wild

A

individuals of the species occur only in captivity

at least 68 spp

214
Q

regional/local extinction

A

loss of species from part of its former geographic range

215
Q

extirpation

A

purposeful disappearance (often wrongly used to mean local extinction)

216
Q

example of extirpation

A

basking shark

sea otter

217
Q

impact of local extinctions

A

often lead to global extinctions
can cause extinction of other species in ecosystem
species are interconnected

218
Q

why to be concerned about local extinctions

A

populations are unique (genetically, behaviourally, morphologically)
impacts and management often occur at population scale
disappearance of populations precedes global extinction

219
Q

more subspecies =

A

higher chance of species survival

220
Q

co-extinction

A

an extinction that occurs alongside extinction of a focal species

221
Q

co-extinctions most commonly in

A

specialist parasites

ex. passenger pigeon louse, tropical butterfly and host plants

222
Q

ecological / functional extinction

A

the reduction of a species to such low abundance that it no longer interacts significantly with other species or performs its ecosystem function

223
Q

proving extinction

A

very difficult, easy to miss, require exhaustive surveying, can get it wrong

224
Q

possibly extinct

A

likely but a chance they are extant

225
Q

Lazarus effect / Romeo error

A

declared extinct when they actually aren’t

226
Q

why does lazarus effects occur

A

not enough money for in depth survey

difficult to find every last individual

227
Q

example of lazarus effect

A

Cebu flowerpecker declared extinct in 1950s, found in 1992 (86 yrs with no record!)

228
Q

when are extinctions typically discovered

A

long after, often >75yrs

few species with every individual monitored

229
Q

other problem with extinctions

A

many go unnoticed, especially small, inconspicuous species

230
Q

number of species extinction per year

A

ca. 27,000
74/yr
3/hour
EO Wilson

231
Q

commercial extinction

A

overexploitation of a target species to the point that it is so low and sparse that it is no longer worth targeting, often assumed safe from biological extinction but often not

232
Q

examples of commercial extinction

A

bluefin tuna
abelone
atlantic cod

233
Q

species average lifespan

A

1-10MY

234
Q

example of ecological extinction

A

oysters in Chesapeake bay, population overexploited, reduced water filtering potential

235
Q

what is the background extinction rate

A

0.1-1 species/ million species / year

236
Q

current best estimate of # of species on earth

A

ca. 10M

237
Q

what would background extinction be now based on best estimate of number of species on earth

A

1-10 species / year

238
Q

current actual extinction rate

A

100 (known) extinctions / 210000 species / 100 years
1 ext. / 21,000 species / yr
47.6 ext. / mill species / yr
ca. 50-500X the background rate

239
Q

ecosystem services

A

essential goods and services ranging from medicines and building materials to soils, water, flood control, that natural ecosystems deliver to ppl

240
Q

MEA

A

Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (2005)
1300 scientists, 95 countries determine that humans interfere on such a huge scale that human well-being is at risk, and the ppl most at risk are the rural poor

241
Q

protect natural vegetation?

A

may not be high biodiversity but may protect ecosystems and decrease catastrophes, loss of marshes exacerbated the effects of Katrina

242
Q

rivot hypothesis

A

a few losses will not impact the system but many losses will result in loss of function

243
Q

portfolio effect

A

stability-diversity relationship, diversified portfolio so that gains can offset the losses – net stability

244
Q

portfolio effect in a single species

A

plasticity of subpopulations

245
Q

why do people degrade the environment

A

economic incentive

246
Q

economic valuation

A

assigning value of services and their negative externalities to make degradation more apparent, may increase sustainability decisions, difficult to assess

247
Q

willingness to pay

A

maximum stated price an individual would pay to avoid loss or reduction of ES

248
Q

PES

A

Payments for Ecosystem Services

reward land owners for conserving/ restoring ES

249
Q

example of PES

A

water funds

grains to green program

250
Q

serviceshed

A

area where an ecosystem service is generated and where people benefit from it

251
Q

InVEST

A

Integrated Valuation of Environmental Service and Tradeoffs

map services, provide quantitative data to help conservationists compare areas/efforts and make decisions

252
Q

conservation market

A

if a market exists, conservation will result in benefits for biodiversity and economics
ex. carbon sequestration, reforestation

253
Q

Is ES approach the right way to go

A

may undervalue intrinsic values

best approach incorporates ES + regulations + ethical appeal

254
Q

marine species extinctions

A

18 marine species listed as extinct on IUCN 2013 list

no known fish -too difficult to document

255
Q

Great auk

A

flightless, islander

Atlantic, last known from 1852

256
Q

extinction debt

A

habitat destruction compromises species range, not resulting in complete and immediate extinction, but eventual extinction;
extinctions occur generations after fragmentation;
future ecological cost of current habitat destruction

257
Q

Time lag

A

individuals persist for long periods of time in lower quality habitat fragments, populations slowly spiral to extinction

258
Q

most threatened taxa

A 
% threatened
gymnosperms - 36%
fishes - 37%
reptiles - 31%
amphibians - 30%
259
Q

Vulnerability to extinction

A 
V = ES
vulnerability = extrinsic threatening process x intrinsic sensitivity
260
Q

Main correlates of extinction

A
  1. Large body size
  2. Small geographic range
  3. Specialization
261
Q

body size and extinction

A

low intrinsic rate of pop increase
high trophic level
smaller pop size

262
Q

intrinsic rate of increase

A

rate a population increases in size if there are no density-dependent forces regulating the population, births - death per generation

263
Q

small geographic range and extinction

A

island populations
mountain/ peninsula species
single location endemics

264
Q

why do islands have large number of endemics

A

evolutionary isolation

265
Q

examples of island extinctions

A

Stephen’s island wren, NZ

17 extinct lemurs, Madagascar

266
Q

specialization and extinction, ecological specialism

A 
Habitat specialization
Diet specialization
ex. panda bear
Diadromy
Flightlessness
267
Q

diadromy

A

migration of fish in either direction, from fresh to sea water reverse

268
Q

examples of diadromy

A

salmon
eels
sturgeons

269
Q

total abundance vs index of specialization

A

exponential increase

generalists&raquo_space; abundance than specialists

270
Q

NZ Moa

A

10-11 species of flightless endemic bird
died 700-400BP
co-extinction with Haast’s eagle

271
Q

why model

A

nature is complex (simplify)
models help clarify our thinking (understand)
models generate testable predictions (forecast)
models provide insight into the systems they mimic

272
Q

problem with models

A

abstract representations, not always accurate,

nature doesn’t have to follow natures, do not rely to heavily on them

273
Q

Why is EO Wilson’s extinction rate so high

A

extinctions are very slow, not all known

274
Q

Estimating extinction risk

A

read species area curve backwards

275
Q

species area curve function

A 
S = c A^z
S = species
c = constant 
A = area 
z = rate of species accumulation
276
Q

number of biodiversity hotspots

A

25

277
Q

CRI

A

conservation risk index

fraction of habitat protected : fraction of habitat converted

278
Q

unique habitats not protected if only focused on biodiversity

A

Yellowstone
Hydrothermal vents
marshes

279
Q

Conservation planning process

A
  1. ID conservation target
  2. Inventory region for targets and threats
  3. Set conservation goals
  4. Design network of conservation areas
280
Q

Conservation goals

A

specific, measurable, quantifiable, needed to measure success, adjustable
how much is needed to sustain population

281
Q

important to include in planning

A

costs
objectives
species shifts

282
Q

ES vs biodiversity

A

not correlated but should try to find sites that rank high for both

283
Q

example of including multiple priorities in conservation plan

A

Florida - planned to reduce storm surge, included important habitat, areas of flood risk, vulnerable human population, threatened/ endangered species

284
Q

species lost at 50% habitat loss

A

10% species loss

285
Q

species lost at 90% habitat loss

A

50% species loss

286
Q

If we lose half the area of an island, what proportion of species do we expect to lose (assuming c = 4, z = 0.2)

A

S = cA^z

12%

287
Q

% species lost with 50% habitat destroyed vs z

A

increasing

higher z = higher species losses

288
Q

Singapore species loss

A

95% of forest lost over 180 years
30% loss of forest species
32% of native birds lost

289
Q

Assumptions of SAC estimates

A
  1. habitat loss instantaneously eliminates species
  2. habitats are lost (in reality often converted)
  3. Habitat loss is random with respect to SR / habitat quality
  4. Individual vs. the whole
  5. extinction rates are unaffected by fragmentation of remaining habitat
  6. other threats
290
Q

why does S-A approach consistently overestimate the actual rate of extinction

A

space that must be searched to find single individual of species smaller than space that has to be searched to find every last individual of that species - going backwards is not the same as going forwards

291
Q

why are marine ecoregion based on seafloor environment

A

species distribution is challenging to map and knowledge is limited compared to land

292
Q

biodiversity offsets

A

form of mitigation in which loss of biodiversity at one site is compensated for (offset) by protecting another area

293
Q

common conservation mistakes

A
  • not labelling plan as prioritization
  • too vague of definitions
  • too much attention to places over actions
  • arbitrary indices
  • not incorporating risk of failure
294
Q

z is SAC depends on

A

isolation, connectivity, migration / movements

high isolation = large z

295
Q

small populations =

A

larger extinction threat

296
Q

IUCN

A

International union for conservation of nature;

only official global list of species at risk; 8 categories

297
Q

IUCN Categories

A 
Extinct
extinct in the wild
critically endangered
endangered
vulnerable
near threatened
least concern
298
Q

extinction vortex

A

extrinsic factors – population shrink – small, isolated population, inbreeding and drift reduce genetic variability and individual fitness – population declines – demographic / environmental stochasticity, allee effect – reduced population – repeat downward spiral –

299
Q

extrinsic factors that shrink population

A

habitat destruction
pollution
over harvest
invasive species

300
Q

overall extinction vortex pattern

A

small pop – low genetic variability – lower survival, lower reproduction – small pop – downward spiral to extinction

301
Q

Allee effect

A

correlation between pop size/density and mean individual fitness

302
Q

demographic stochasticity

A

variability of pop growth rates arising from related random events
ex. birth rates, death rates, sex ratio, dispersal

303
Q

environmental stochasticity

A

unpredictable fluctuations in environment conditions; one of main sources of fluctuation in ecological processes; cause pop fluctuations

304
Q

inbreeding =

A

increased homozygosity = reduced fitness

305
Q

effects of fragmentation, Chiew Lam reservoir

A

native smal mammals disappeared rapidly, after 25 yrs small mammals almost gone from 16 islands, SR most correlated to area

306
Q

modeling population change over time

A

BIDE

307
Q

BIDE

A

N_t+1 = N_t + Births + Immigrants - Deaths - Emigrants

308
Q

modelling discrete population growth

A

exponential growth, closed population, BR/DR constant, growth by same factor each year- not truly continuous

309
Q

discrete population growth function

A

N_t+1 = N_t *λ

310
Q

discrete population growth rate, λ =

A

N_t+1 / N_t

311
Q

exponential population growth beyond one year

A

N_t = N_o * λ^t
λ = (N_t /
N_o) ^ 1/t

312
Q

effect of λ on population growth

A

λ > 1 - population growth is exponential
λ = 1, pop is stable
λ less than 1, pop declines

313
Q

continuous population growth

A 
dN/dt = (b-d)N
dN/dt = rN 
Nt = N_o *e^rt
314
Q

r

A

per capita intrinsic rate of increase
r > 0, pop increases exponentially
r = 0, pop constant
r less than 0, pop decreases exponentially

315
Q

Doubling time

A

a population growing exponentially has a constant doubling time

316
Q

t_d =

A

ln2/r

317
Q

λ =

A

e^r

318
Q

r =

A

ln(λ)

319
Q

advantages of λ

A

technically more accurate for discretely growing pop’s; can be intuitive; translates easily into % annual growth

320
Q

If λ = 1.20

A

population growing at 20% / yr

321
Q

advantages of r

A

entered around 0 (symmetric)

**Scales

322
Q

inbreeding

A

increases frequency of deleterious alleles

323
Q

what happens when capital is drawn down

A

no buffer

324
Q

exponential population growth assumptions

A 
population closed (NO I, E)
constant B/D rates; deterministic
No age or size structure
325
Q

Allee effects

A

survival and reproductive success of each individual declines in a deterministic manner as pop. declines; at low density pop growth is hindered; individuals benefit from having conspecifics

326
Q

deterministic system

A

system in which no randomness is involved in the development of future states of the system

327
Q

Allee effects: mechanisms

A

minimize predation
foraging advantage
reproductive success
conditioning of environment

328
Q

how allee effect minimizes predation

A

detection and defense
predator swamping
anti-predator aggression

329
Q

how allee effect creates foraging advantage

A

access to food
social hunters
cooperative resources defense

330
Q

how allee effect increases reproductive success

A

obligate cooperative breeders

finding mates

331
Q

why are rare alleles less likely to be expressed

A

more often present as heterozygotes, inbreeding increases homozygosity

332
Q

species area overestimates extinction how much

A

estimated rates nearly double actual rate

333
Q

results of sea turtle functional extinction

A

ecological collapse of seagrass beds

334
Q

red listed species

A

vulnerable - high risk
endangered - very high risk
critically endangered - extremely high risk

335
Q

density independent population change

A

pop shrinks or grows at a constant rate regardless of how sparse or crowded it becomes, i.e. resources are unlimited no matter how large and no problems finding mates/ resources when pop shrinks

336
Q

deterministic population dynamics

A

there are no ‘good years’ and ‘bad years’, environment is constant (resource availability, predation, disease, disturbance), i.e. no environmental stochasticity

337
Q

homogeneous individuals

A

all individuals have same reproductive success and same probability of survival and growth (i.e. no demographic stochasticity)

338
Q

If a population grows by 30% (λ=1.3) one year and shrinks by 30% (λ=0.7) the next year

A

does not sum up to net = o
λ = 1.3 of No =100 results in 130
λ = 0.7 of No =130 results in Nt = 91
overall λ = 0.95, geometric mean (GM)

339
Q

GM =

A

square root (product of λ_i’s)

340
Q

stochasticity

A

randomness or uncertainty

341
Q

demographic stochasticity

A

if a pop has few individuals chance variations in the sex ratio of offspring or the survival and reproductive success of individuals can prevail over what is expected on average

342
Q

positive correlation between population size and individual success

A

allee effect

343
Q

impact of geographic range on environmental stochasticity

A

smal range = higher chance of entire species being wiped out by one event

2016/2017 (15 decks)

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