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2016/2017 > 319 Marine Ecology > Flashcards

319 Marine Ecology Flashcards

1
Q

Ecology is the study of

A
  1. interactions between organisms
  2. interactions btw organisms and their environments
  3. how interactions affect distribution and abundance of organisms
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2
Q

Scales of ecology

A

Individuals/ population/ community structure
Ecosystem structure
Global biogeographic patterns

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3
Q

aspects of individual/ population/ community structure

A

species composition
species ranges
organism dispersion

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4
Q

aspects of ecosystem structure

A

food webs
energy flows
How environment affects ecosystem

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5
Q

aspects of global biogeographic patterns

A

Distribution patterns
Biodiversity patterns
Baseline data for climate models

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6
Q

the basis of marine ecology

A

observations observations observations

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7
Q

scientific deduction

A

use logic to build on a premise, generate a hypothesis, and make a prediction

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8
Q

Question:

A

broad interrogative sentence about a specific ecological phenomenon
Eg. why do mussel densities vary

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9
Q

Premise:

A

Our best ecological knowledge about the phenomenon

Eg. seastars eat mussels

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10
Q

Hypothesis:

A

A testable, mechanistic, assumption about the ecological phenomenon in question, based on sound premies.
Eg. Because seastars eat mussels, there will be fewer mussels where there are seastars

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11
Q

Prediction

A

How two variables relate to each other b/c of the mechanism described in the hypothesis
eg. seastar, mussel density will be negatively correlated; mussel density will increase when you remove seastars

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12
Q

A statistical test tells you

A

if differences btw controls and treatments are significantly different, i.e. not likely to be due to chance

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13
Q

Intertidal old definition

A

areas of the shore are covered by water during high tide, and uncovered during low tide

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14
Q

Intertidal new definition

A

where land meets the sea

the interface between terrestrial and marine ecosystems

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15
Q

why old intertidal definition is not as good

A

-some shore ecosystems don’t experience big tidal changes (high/low tides) but still have characteristic features

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16
Q

shore ecosystem organisms

A

up to 10 phyla (30 in the sea)
seaweeds, bivalves, gastropods
close relationship with some terrestrial organisms (gulls, raccoons, bears)

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17
Q

Environmental variables in the shore

A
  1. sediment size
  2. water emersion and submersion
  3. wave exposure
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18
Q

Sediment size

A

diameter at widest part of sediment grain
based on Wentworth scale of sediment size
boulders - clay grains

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19
Q

grain sizes, Wentworth scale

A 
boulders >246mm
cobbles 66-246
pebbles 4-64
granules 2-4
(gravel >2)
coarse sand 0.5-2
medium sand 0.25-0.5
fine sand 0.06-0.25
silt 0.004-0.06
clay - less than 0.004
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20
Q

dominant type of organisms in rocky intertidal

A

epifauna, largely sessile

eg. barnacles, mussels

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21
Q

types of organisms based on sediment

A

epifauna (rocky environment)
infauna (sandy/muddy envt)
semi-infauna

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22
Q

semi-infauna example

A

sea pen - deeply rooted stalk, protrude above sediment

common in deep sea

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23
Q

sediment size determines

A

epifauna or infauna or no fauna

middle sizes not suitable for attachment or burrowing (cobbles)

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24
Q

biodiversity vs sediment size

A

negative parabola

high diversity/richness at small and large sed size

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25
Q

tides are

A

periodic movement of water across shore ecosystem caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun

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26
Q

tidal range

A

difference between low and high tide

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27
Q

chart datum

A

reference for measuring the tide, typically the lowest possible low tide (then tides are measured as height above CD)

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28
Q

what creates tides

A

rotation of moon = bulge on either side of earth – earth rotates through both bulges in one day, 2 bulges = 2 high tides

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29
Q

earths rotation

A

counterclockwise

W –> E

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30
Q

types of tides

A

diurnal
semidiurnal
mixed semidiurnal

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31
Q

diurnal

A

1 high tide, 1 low tide in a 24 hour cycle

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32
Q

majority of the worlds tides

A

90% are semidiurnal or mixed semidiurnal

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33
Q

VI tides

A

mixed semidiurnal

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34
Q

tide shift

A

0.75 hours/day (due to the moon rotating and moving the bulges)

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35
Q

what causes spring/neap tide cycles

A

earth/ sun/ moon alignment
moon has larger affect on tides but when M+S align = additive affects = spring tide
when M+S 90º apart, cancel each other out = neap tide

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36
Q

semidiurnal

A

2 high tides approximately same height; 2 low tides in a 24hr cycle,

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37
Q

high tide

A

area of Earth covered by bulge

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38
Q

spring tide

A

sun, moon, earth aligned on same side (new moon), or opposite side (full moon)
highest high tide
lowest low tide

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39
Q

locational effects on tidal variation

A

latitude
topography
local currents
coriolis force

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40
Q

latitude effect on tides

A

poles and tropics have lower tidal ranges than the mid latitudes

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41
Q

distance effect on tides

A

distance between E, M, S changes as they pass through their elliptical orbits

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42
Q

tides are measured relative

A

to a reference

eg. lowest neap tide, average tide

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43
Q

measuring tidal heights relative to mean

A 
Height above chart datum (m) vs Time (h)
Extreme high water of spring tide EHWS
Mean high water of spring tides MHWS
mean high water neap tide MHWN
mean tide level MTL
mean low water neap tide MLWN
mean low water spring tide MLWS
extreme low water spring ELWS
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44
Q

tide created gradient

A

ecocline
environmental wetness–dryness gradient
variable based on waves

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45
Q

low tide

A

area of Earth away from bulge

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46
Q

one tidal cycle

A

24 hours, 50 minutes

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47
Q

emersion

A

the process or state of emerging from or being out of water after being submerged; being uncovered during the low tide

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48
Q

neap tide

A

sun and moon perpendicular to each other
lowest high tide
highest low tide
least difference between high and low tide

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49
Q

submersion

A

Being underwater or going underwater; being covered in water during high tide

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50
Q

awash

A

being washed in seawater as it ebbs or flows during the tide; level with the surface of water, especially the sea, so that it just washes over

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51
Q

exposure

A

affected by waves

**NOT exposed to air, do not use ‘exposed’ when talking about emersion

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52
Q

problems associated with emersion-submersion cycles

A

temperature fluxes
desiccation
oxygen concentrations
currents that cause unattached items to move

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53
Q

Intertidal is defined by

A

wet –> dry gradient

tides may move the gradient up/down

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54
Q

why is O2 a problem in emersion-submersion cycles

A

many intertidal organisms deal with T fluxes and desiccation in a way that limits their oxygen
eg. shellfish close their shells

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55
Q

seawater and T fluctuations

A

T fluctuation milder in water – water has high heat capacity due to H bonds (require high E to break)

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56
Q

Intertidal T fluctuations

A

day vs night
seasonal cycles
latitudinal gradients

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57
Q

intertidal seasonal temperature fluctuations

A
  • can be extreme

- timing of low/high tide varies across seasons (eg. right now low tide is night time)

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58
Q

poikilotherm

A

organism whose internal temperature varies considerably

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59
Q

Q_10 rule

A

Q_10 = 2 - 3

metabolic rate doubles or triples with every 10ºC increase in temperature

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60
Q

enzyme activity vs temperature

A

increasing parabola
medium T = optimal T for enzyme activity
optimal T varies between and even within species (different enzymes have diff. optimal T)

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61
Q

what happens to enzyme activity above optimal T

A

activity decreases because enzymes start to degrade / denature at high T’s

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62
Q

problem with higher metabolic rate

A

more E required to maintain basic metabolic function = less E for growth = lower “scope for growth”

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63
Q

scope for growth and temperature

A

decreases with increasing T b/c animal is spending all E surviving in high T

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64
Q

startegies for dealing with T fluctuations

A

behaviour
physiological/ biochemical
adaptation

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65
Q

behavioural strategies for dealing with T fluctuations

A

short-term behaviour changes to maintain internal T

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66
Q

physiological/ biochemical strategies for dealing with T fluctuations

A

short-term physiological responses

ex. produce heat-shock proteins or antifreeze molecules

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67
Q

adaptations for dealing with T fluctuations

A

morphological or physiological feature that evolve to minimize T fluctuation
-generational timescales

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68
Q

examples of behavioural T control strategies

A

hide in crevices
bivalves close shells
gastropods clamp down on the surface
form beds to trap moisture and buffer against T

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69
Q

shell adaptation to T fluctuations

A

light colour shells - reflect more sun

ridged shell - dissipate heat, trap moisture

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70
Q

snail study, Australia

A

find high-shore light-coloured snails stay cooler than exposed rock possibly due to shell colour

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71
Q

LD_50

A

temperature at which 50% cumulative mortality occurs

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72
Q

T tolerance, T optima vary based on

A

species

geographic range

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73
Q

enzyme activity at the T extremes

A

low T = enzyme activity too low to sustain life

high T = physiological failure due to protein damage

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74
Q

why are low T’s bad for enzyme activity

A

risk of tissue freezing

metabolic rate is too low– energy limited, growth / reproduction reduced

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75
Q

“supra-optimal”

A

above optimal temperature

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76
Q

at “supra-optimal” T’s

A

enzymes fail
protein denaturation
scope of growth reduced

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77
Q

capacity to produce heat shock proteins

A

appears to be threshold-responsive

may differ between regions (study found HS proteins in subtropic species)

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78
Q

heat shock protein, high T

A

at high enough T even the proteins fail

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79
Q

why would an organism have a higher LD_50

A

better able to deal with extreme heat

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80
Q

antifreeze proteins

A

glycoproteins
not nearly as well studied
found in polar regions

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81
Q

why are heat-shock / glyco proteins only short-term solutions

A

difficult to maintain

energetically demanding to produce

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82
Q

hierarchical T response

A

short term - physiological change
medium term - acclimation
long term - evolution and adaptation
may be additive, combined

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83
Q

why is desiccation a problem

A

marine organisms are mostly water;
can’t perform physiologic fn’s if dried up;
O2 availability problems

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84
Q

intertidal oxygen availability problems

A

can’t breathe ‘air’
breathing organs collapse when dry
strategies to conserve H2O deplete O2

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85
Q

strategies that minimize desiccation

A 
a lot of the strategies that manage T
clamp down
close shell
occur in beds
aggregate in shaded crevices/ tide pools
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86
Q

overcoming desiccation

A

some organisms can rehydrate

intertidal seaweeds can lose 70-90% of internal moisture (probably specialized protein, not well understood)

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87
Q

strategies to maintain oxygen levels

A

specialized gills
specialized respiration
quiescent (inactive)

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88
Q

intertidal organisms, specialized gills

A

gills enclosed in thin-walled cavity to prevent drying (bivalves, crabs)
reduced gill size, vascularized mantle cavity = lung for aerial respiration (barnacles, high tide gastropods)

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89
Q

intertidal organisms, cutaneous respiration

A

reduced gill size, proliferation of blood vessels in skin

eg. intertidal fish

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90
Q

quiescence

A

inactivity reduces oxygen needs

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91
Q

strategies for dealing with wave action

A

aggregate in sheltered location
anchor to substrate
reduce profile
flexibility and elasticity

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92
Q

how intertidal organisms anchor to substrate

A

permanently - holdfast, abyssal thread, ‘glue’

temporarily - muscular goot, mucus-glue

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93
Q

intertidal organism shelter

A

crevices, tide pools, burrowing (if possible…)

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94
Q

dealing with wave action in the intertidal, reducing profile

A

small, squat, streamlined body - temporarily or permanent;

decrease physical damage, detachment

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95
Q

intertidal animals with permanently low profile

A 
crustose algae
barnacles
limpets
chitons
abalone
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96
Q

intertidal animals with variable profile

A

anemone
crab
exhibit behavioural plasticity

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97
Q

why do intertidal organisms want to be flattened

A

reduce drage
dont ‘feel’ current as much
reduce dislodging

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98
Q

example of intertidal organisms exhibiting flexibility to deal with wave action

A

kelp - bend back and forth with the currents

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99
Q

wave action can have significant effects on community composition by

A

affecting sediment distribution

creating disturbance —> community succession

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100
Q

ecological niche

A

sum of organisms biotic + abiotic environment uses
eg. space, good, temperature range
not the same as habitat

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101
Q

most important determinant of where an organism can live in the shore environment

A

sediment size

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102
Q

rocky shore communities

A

diverse phyla, epifauna, many sessile, distinct donation patterns, primary and secondary space occupants

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103
Q

competition

A

an interaction btw individuals in which each is harmed by their shared use of a resource that limits their growth, survival, or reproduction

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104
Q

competition between individual of the same species

A

intraspecific competition

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105
Q

competition happens when

A

individuals of same species or diff species use same limiting resource

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106
Q

what is the relative importance of intraspecific competition vs interspecific competition

A

competition between species is relatively more important

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107
Q

types of competition

A

exploitative
interference competition
pre-emptive competition

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108
Q

exploitative competition

A

indirect competition

eg. plants depleting nutrients to the detriment of others

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109
Q

interference competition

A

two competitors physically interfere with each other

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110
Q

pre-emptive competition

A

get there first

rocky shore organisms display this competition by settling first

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111
Q

when is competition especially intense

A

when shared resource is rare / limiting

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112
Q

competition increases for

A

species and resource similarity

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113
Q

interspecific competition

A

competition between individuals of different species

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114
Q

most important resources that organisms compete for in marine environments

A

food

space

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115
Q

epi-fauna’s major requirement

A

space - surface to attach to

space is limiting

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116
Q

Connell’s barnacle experiment

A

Chthamalus stellatus vs Balanus balanoides

why did the two barnacles show zonation

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117
Q

Chthamalus stellatus

A

small barnacle, up to 8mm diameter

brown-greyish, smooth with oval operculum

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118
Q

Balanus balanoides

A

large barnacle, up to 22mm diameter

whitish in colour, white diamond-shaped operculum, deeply ridged plates, lower desiccation tolerance due to size

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119
Q

barnacle life cycle

A

nauplii I – nauplii II – nauplii III — nauplii iV – nauplii V — Nauplii VI – cyprid stage – settlement – metamorphosis – sessile adult

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120
Q

Connell’s observations

A

barnacle adults found in distinct bands
barnacle larvae found all over the intertidal (not in bands)
very narrow overlap zone - stark transition

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121
Q

zonation Connell’s barnacles show

A

Chthamalus found in upper tidal, away from water = more emersion time
Balanus found in lower intertidal, close to water = more submersion time

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122
Q

Connell’s question

A

why isn’t Chthamalus found in lower intertidal

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123
Q

Connell’s hypotheses

A
  • space competition by Balanus limits Chthamalus in lower intertidal
  • Chthamalus limited by submersion tolerance (not very good hypothesis)
  • other possible reasons: predators, intraspecific competition
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124
Q

Connell’s experiments

A
  • remove/ exclude Baluns from patches at different tide levels to see what happens to Cthamalus
  • transplanted rocks w/ Cth. from upper–> lower to see if they survive
  • also tested intraspecific competition and predators
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125
Q

how did Connell know that Balanus could not survive in the higher intertidal

A

he transplanted them from low –> high in a previous experiment

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126
Q

Connell’s results

A
  • removal of Balanus from overlap increased Chth survival

- transplanting Chth lower had no effect on survival unless Balanus was also removed

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127
Q

Summary of Connell’s experiment

A

donation created by competition + tolerance

when env’t conditions stressful, community composition dominated by species that can survive there

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128
Q

what would be the outcome of Chthamalus/Balanus competition in a hot beach

A

at very high T Balanus may not survive due to its low desiccation tolerance, then Chth would dominate and take over low intertidal; Chth wins and zonation moves lower or doesn’t exist at all

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129
Q

what do Connell’s experiments demonstrate

A
  • competition can structure the rocky shore community

- physical/bio conditions can alter the outcome of the competition

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130
Q

what does it mean that physical and biological conditions can alter the outcomes of competition

A

Context Specific!

eg. desiccation modified the outcome of barnacle competition

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131
Q

fundamental niche

A

set of resources where organism can theoretically survive

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132
Q

Chthamalus fundamental niche

A

all over intertidal

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133
Q

Balanus fundamental niche

A

only lower intertidal due to low desiccation tolerance

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134
Q

what would be the outcome of Chthamalus/Balanus competition at a moderate temperature beach

A

Balanus will outcompete Chth for cooler areas - crevices, low tide zone; baluns wins, Connell-type zonation

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135
Q

realized niche

A

the resources that the organism actually uses; may or may not be similar to fundamental niche

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136
Q

Chthamalus realized niche

A

≠ fundamental niche

able to utilize entire intertidal but not ‘allowed’ to b/c of Balanus

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137
Q

Balanus realized niche

A

= fundamental niche

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138
Q

Why does Balanus’ realized niche = fundamental niche but Chthamalus’ does not

A

Balanus is a superior competitor - dominant

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139
Q

how do animals co-exist in limiting habitats

A

competitive exclusion principle

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140
Q

what is the competitive exclusion principle

A
  • competitors more likely to co-exist if they use resources in a different way
  • competitors exclude each other when they use resources in exactly the same way
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141
Q

what would be the outcome of Chthamalus/Balanus competition at a cool beach

A

Balanus can tolerate being farther from water; Balanus wins, zonation moves higher or none at all if Balanus takes over

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142
Q

why can’t Balanus and Chthamalus co-exist

A

they use resources (space) the same way

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143
Q

when species use resources in the same they have the same

A

ecological niche

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144
Q

when a limiting resource is used in different ways it is called

A

resource partitioning

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145
Q

resource partitioning allows

A

multiple species to co-exist

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146
Q

types of predators in the rocky intertidal

A

borers, drillers, crushers, crackers, external digesters, browsers, sit and wait, mobile

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147
Q

types of grazers in rocky intertidal

A

sweepers, rakers

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148
Q

population

A

group of individuals of the same species that share a habitat and experience similar environmental conditions

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149
Q

population size

A

number/ biomass of individuals in a population (units = individuals, grams, etc. )

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150
Q

population density

A

number/biomass of individuals of a population in a given area (individuals / m2)

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151
Q

consumer effect on prey

A

depress density of prey by consuming them

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152
Q

profitability

A

energy per unit time an individual is aquiring

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153
Q

optimal foraging theory

A

profitability vs. prey size
profitability is highest at intermediate prey size
predators impact is largest on the size of prey that is most profitable (optimal)

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154
Q

why is profitability low for small and large prey sizes

A

too big = hard to capture/ crush/ kill

too small = too low of nutritional value for the work it takes

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155
Q

percent of prey population vs sizes

A

generally majority of population is small, less medium, big, less biggest

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156
Q

what happens to percent of prey population vs size when you add a predator

A

the population will go down but mostly only the medium sized individuals

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157
Q

why might optimal foraging theory exist

A

reproduction is also scaled to size – leaving large prey = more reproductive abilities = more prey

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158
Q

why are humans unnatural predators

A

we draw down the biggest prey

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159
Q

functional response curves

A

prey eaten per predator vs prey density
Type I = linear response, no restriction to how much predator eats
Type II = saturating curve, at some point predator can not keep up to prey
Type III = S-shape, predator must learn how to consume new prey source

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160
Q

most common type of functional response curve

A

Type II - saturating

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161
Q

when a consumer has an indirect effect on prey traits

A

inducible defense

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162
Q

barnacle inducible defense

A

Chthamalus in presence of Acanthina predator - bent form where operculum is ‘hidden’ from predator

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163
Q

If bent barnacles are protected from predators why don’t they all grow this way

A

bent barnacles of the same age have smaller shells and reproduce less; bent form may protect against predators but decreases population size and health

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164
Q

predator-induced changes, green crab and herbivorous snail

A

green crab – risk cue– suppress snail grazing – impact on algal community
predator risk impacts the ecosystem

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165
Q

consumer effects

A 
consumptive or non-consumptive
biomass
abundance
characteristics
diversity
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166
Q

example of indirect effects

A

crab indirectly impacts algae via snail

sea otter indirectly impacts kelp via urchins

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167
Q

oystercatcher observations

A
  • algal cover low where limpets are abundant
  • limpets not found in oystercatcher feeding areas
  • algal cover is high where oystercatchers feed
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168
Q

oystercatcher hypothesis

A

oystercatchers induce a trophic cascade by suppressing limpets which feed on algae

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169
Q

oystercatcher exclusion experiment

A

w/ cages exclude limpets

algae much higher in treatment than control

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170
Q

oystercatcher natural experiment

A

observe beaches where there are and aren’t oystercatchers

at beaches w/ oystercatchers limpets did not utilize full fundamental niche

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171
Q

human-oystercatcher observation

A

site w/ human activity have less oystercatchers and less algae

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172
Q

human-oystercatcher hypothesis

A
  • human-educed trophic cascade = human affected sites have less oystercatchers – more limpets – less algae
  • may be why human frequented beaches have so many limpets
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173
Q

trophic cascade

A

predator suppressed abundance or alters behavior of prey, releasing the next lower trophic level from predation

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174
Q

inducible defences can impact the community

A

predator induces bent form of barnacle – bent form not edible to predator – predator preys on mussel – mussel pop decreased – algae population increases due to freed up space

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175
Q

types of trophic cascades in rocky shore

A

density-mediated trophic cascade

trait-mediated trophic cascade

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176
Q

cost of inducible defense

A

lower growth
lower reproductive capacity
less fitness

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177
Q

density-mediated trophic cascade

A

caused by consumptive, lethal effects of predator on prey

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178
Q

trait-mediated trophic cascade

A

caused by non-consumptive, non-lethal effects of predator on prey

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179
Q

Enteromorpha

A

sea lettuce, Ulva

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180
Q

Littorina observations

A
  • Littorina snail prefers feeding on soft algae, Ulva

- Littorina avoids feeding on tough algae, Chondrus

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181
Q

Littorina reverse transplant experiment

A

choose tide pools (some w/ some w/o snail) – remove snails from pools that had – add snails to pools that didn’t have – compare

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182
Q

Littorina results

A

control (w/ Littorina): chondrus dominant
snail introduced pool: originally dominated by Ulva, decreases in time, eventually replaced by Chondrus
snail removed: chondrus drops and Ulva rapidly becomes dominant

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183
Q

what does Littorina study tell us

A

even grazers can have large impacts on community and environment

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184
Q

competitive-dominant

A

out-compete other species for resources
mussels
Ulva

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185
Q

Littorina and diversity

A

Evenness, Richness both show hump-shaped response

  • at intermediate Littorina density, more algae species allowed to exist because competitive-dominant grazed down
  • intermediate-disturbance hypothesis
186
Q

species that are important for structuring the community

A

abundance species
keystone species
bioengineers
foundation species

187
Q

keystone species

A

impact on ecosystem is disproportionately large relative to abundance /biomass

188
Q

keystone example

A

Pisaster

189
Q

Pisaster study

A

monitor intertidal - remove Pisaster and monitor - after removal mussel pop. increases 2-> 95% of pop. – everything else wiped out

190
Q

Disaster study conclusion

A
  • Pisaster decreases mussel density
  • mussels are competitive dominants
  • Pisasters increase community diversity
  • Pisaster is keystone
191
Q

variations in Pisaster results in sheltered vs. wave exposed beach

A

context specific

  • rough waves that remove mussels and pisaster = lower seastar effect b/c their pop is reduced and their preys pop is reduced
  • could be that waves bring in more nutrients, or increase/reduce disease
192
Q

dominant species

A

high abundant species; dominate the biomass; large effect on ecosystem b/c of large abundance

193
Q

ecosystem engineer

A

habitat forming organisms; modify environment so much it affects other organisms

194
Q

ecosystem engineer examples

A

beavers
termites
elephants

195
Q

foundation species

A

a type of ecosystem engineer that impacts the environment in a way that effects other organisms

196
Q

Parisites

A

can have an effect on the community structure too
-snails infected w/ trematodes grazed down algae more than community where snails were excluded, much less than community w/ healthy snails

197
Q

foundation species

A

species the provide habitat for other species

  • habitat-forming species
  • ecosystem engineers
  • supply the foundation of the ecosystem
198
Q

foundation species examples

A 
kelp
mangroves
corals
seagrasses 
mussels
199
Q

facilitation

A

ecological interaction where 1+ species benefit and no species are harmed
-foundation species facilitate new habitat

200
Q

types of facilitation

A 
habitat
protection from stressful environmental conditions
shelter from predators
supply OM for food
concentrate prey items
201
Q

Stress Gradient Hypothesis predicts that facilitation by foundation species is most important

A
  • when environment stress is high
  • when environment conditions are benign
  • therefore facilitation relative unimportant at med. environment stress (context specific)
202
Q

why is facilitation important at low/high stress

A

high: buffer environmental stress
low: provide protection from predators (predators more active in low stress env’t)

203
Q

mussel impacts

A
  • foundation species that provide shelter for many organisms
  • competitive dominants that displace many other species
  • positive and negative effects, good if their your friend bad if their not
204
Q

mussels and cockles observations

A
  • mussels form reefs
  • cockles are infuana burrowers
  • cockles only found upstream from mussel bed (coastward)
  • cockles absent from beaches without mussels
205
Q

mussel, cockle premise

A

negative interaction btw mussels/ cockles prevented cockles from existing beyond mussel bed, but facilitated env’t that allows cockles to grow where mussels are

206
Q

mussel, cockle conclusions

A
  • mussels make downstream conditions unpleasant for cockles (seaward)
  • mussels buffer landward area from waves - calm habitat for cockles
207
Q

facilitating species impacts

A

can be positive and/or negative

208
Q

foundation species impacts

A

facilitate other organisms/ communities
local or large spatial scale
positive and/or negative/competitive

209
Q

why is physical disturbance important

A

dislodges epifauna - creates space in an environment where space is limiting

210
Q

deterministic

A

predictable

211
Q

succession

A

no life – pioneer stage – intermediate stage – climax stage
disturbance can set the system back a stage at any time or restart

212
Q

pioneer species

A

move in quickly
grow quickly
eventually overtaken by next succession

213
Q

climax stage

A

stable community

214
Q

succession models

A

based on characteristics of pioneer species
facilitation model
tolerance model
inhibition model

215
Q

facilitation succession

A

early colonists modify environment making it less suitable for early colonizers, and more suitable for late succession colonization and growth

216
Q

sea palm disturbance example

A
  • mussels, sea palms compete for space, mussels are competitive-dominants
  • at wavy beach space is made for sea palms to grow
  • at calm beach mussels are not removed and eventually take over
217
Q

recruitment

A

number of individuals [seeds/ larva] that come in /year

218
Q

barnacle, seaweed facilitation experiment

A
  • limpets feed on algae

- barnacles facilitate algae by excluding limpets

219
Q

stochastic

A

multi-variable dependent

220
Q

tolerance succession

A

early colonizers make env’t less suitable for subsequent colonization but have little-no effect on late colonizers

221
Q

how was the barnacle seaweed experiment conducted

A

planted synthetic barnacles – deterred limpet grazing

222
Q

succession and patch size

A
  • small storm - small patch opens - no succession – mussels re-take over
  • large storm - large patch – other species have chance to colonize
  • succession may depend on patch size and disturbance –context dependent
223
Q

inhibition succession

A

early colonists modify env’t so it becomes less suitable for both early and late successional species – exclude subsequent colonization

224
Q

algae inhibition succession

A

boulders commonly have grown seaweed – if patch opens up Ulva moves in – Ulva takes over
Ulva actively inhibits Gigartina brown algae

225
Q

succession can lead to different types of stable communities

A

chitons, mixed community mediated by keystone, mussel dominated community

  • small patch - refilled by mussels
  • large patch - filled in by bacteria/algae mat
  • mat may be grazed by chitons - stable
  • mat may be replaced by seaweed, replaced by barnacles
226
Q

what does mussel/ chiton / barnacle succession tell us

A

succession is stochastic - nature and size of disturbance dictates what happens

227
Q

how does disturbance affect diversity

A

more disturbance = more diversity
too much disturbance = less diversity
intermediate disturbance hypothesis (hump)

228
Q

ecological succession in rocky shore communities is not

A

deterministic

229
Q

intermediate disturbance hypothesis and boulders, observations

A

small boulders = low # species
large boulders = low # species
med boulders = just right

230
Q

intermediate disturbance hypothesis and boulders, premise

A

small boulders = large level of disturbance, waves disrupt them, destroy/ remove organisms
large boulders = immobile, waves do not move them, space not opened up, colonized by competitive-dominants
med boulders = movement in large storms, space opened up sometimes = higher species richness

231
Q

intermediate disturbance hypothesis

A

low disturbance - competitive dom. take over
very high disturbance - few species grow
mid disturbance - competitive-dom + patches of successional species

232
Q

supply side ecology

A

delivery of larvae: processes that must occur, types of larvae, currents, settlement features, metamorphosis

233
Q

bipartite life cycle of marine organisms

A

benthic adults – reproduction – pelagic larvae – grow, develop, disperse – settle – benthic juvenile – adult

234
Q

reproduction strategies in shore organisms

A 
different sexes or hermaphrodites
internal or external fertilization
feeding or non-feeding larvae
metamorphosis present or absent
huge variation
235
Q

feeding larvae

A

planktotrophic

236
Q

which type of larvae can likely travel further

A

probably feeding (planktotrophic)

237
Q

downside to feeding larvae

A

have to feed

lower survival if resources too low

238
Q

survival curves

A

number of survivors vs age/time
Type I - chair shape, high survival of juveniles, extreme mortality of adults
Type II - linear, steady decline in # survivors, constant chance of dying
Type III - slide shape, thousands of larvae, few survive, most individuals die young

239
Q

Most marine organisms use which reproductive strategy

A

Type III (large # of young)

240
Q

larval survival determined by

A

availability of food

predators

241
Q

recruitment bottleneck

A

larval survival

242
Q

which larvae type is more limited by predators and resources

A

depends! context specific!
depends on currents - how far larvae are travelling
feeding larvae may have extra stress - more vulnerable

243
Q

non-feeding larvae

A

lecithotrophic (have yolk sac)

244
Q

spring phytoplankton bloom

A

important to larvae food availability
marine organisms reproduce seasonally to match the bloom
if bloom is at wrong time larvae in trouble

245
Q

why is there a spring bloom

A

more sun - longer days, angle
more nutrients - winter mixing
more heat - stratification, organisms not mixed out of surface layer

246
Q

why does bloom end by summer

A

run out of nutrients

too much stratification - nutrients not mixed back up

247
Q

mismatch between food availability and larvae

A

no bloom / late bloom / different species bloom can cause reproductive failure and population collapse

248
Q

nauplii release in barnacles

A

found to be correlated with phytoplankton concentration

  • Semibalanus moult and larval release correlated w/ food intake
  • Urchins, mussels triggered by extracellular metabolite
249
Q

consequences of planktonic larvae for benthic populations

A

dispersal
settlement
recruitment

250
Q

dispersal

A

how far individuals are carried by currents

affects gene movement

251
Q

settlement

A

describes when pelagic larvae settle onto benthos

i.e. when they arrive on the shore

252
Q

recruitment

A

describes when a new individual joins the population

253
Q

why is it difficult to study dispersal and settlement

A

larvae are tiny - difficult to observe, ID, tag, etc.
concentrations in water column are small
pelagic tools

254
Q

pelagic tools

A 
not that easy to design
1. sticky tile
2. funnel submerged in water at high tide, larvae settle in to top, can pour out
3. pot scrubber - good settling surface 
beaches patchy, need lots
255
Q

important factors for dispersal

A

currents - how far do they get? where?
larval life stage - planktotrophic, lecithotrophic
how much fuel they have

256
Q

how currents affect rocky shore communities

A

influence local population dynamics
influence genetic connectivity btw populations, create biogeographic patterns
influence ecological interactions on the rocky shore

257
Q

example of currents impact genetic connectivity

A

like the hydrothermal vent dispersal study - where is the genetic material being provided by/to

258
Q

example of currents impacting local population dynamics

A

density of population

259
Q

role of currents and topography

A

open beach - no restriction, lots of ocean exchange, currents important, lot’s of mixing
isolated bay - limited ocean exchange

260
Q

topography and flow exchange, open beach vs isolated bay

A

closed - exchange w/ ocean may dilute larvae and food concentrations
open - exchange w/ ocean may be only source of larvae, food

261
Q

estuary flushing

A

settlement rate vs flushing time = linear increasing

fast flushing rate, high flow = low phytoplankton, low suspension feeder growth, low recruitment

262
Q

how to study population dispersal and connectivity

A

tagging, chemical indicators
couple oceanographic modelling + observations
genetic anlaysis

263
Q

tagging and chemical indicators in marine studies

A

not very useful
larvae too small to tag
chemical indicators too blunt

264
Q

coupling oceanographic models with observations

A

see if densities or genetic relatedness matches patterns expected

265
Q

marine population dispersal, genetic analysis

A

measure genetic info – use statistical model to compare sequences among population - compare patterns w/ currents – see if genetic differentiation patterns match currents

266
Q

Point Conception, California

A

2 opposing currents: north of point current is s, south of point current is N
test genetics - find different genetic structures on two sides of point

267
Q

rocky shore populations are all

A

metapopulations
a series of connected subpopulations
population sources or sinks
important for conservation science

268
Q

rocky shore subpopulations connected via

A

dispersal

269
Q

offshore / onshore currents

A

results of Ekman transport

important for delivering larva and phytoplankton

270
Q

gyre circulation

A

clockwise in NH

271
Q

dominant current on W NA

A

N –> S

272
Q

Coriolis effect

A

deflection of currents due to Earths rotation

in N hemisphere water is deflected to the right of direction of movement

273
Q

Ekman spiral

A
  • surface water movement by wind drags deeper layers of water below
  • each layer moves by friction from layer above and moves slower, movement stops ~100m
  • water is deflected by Coriolis effect- each successive layer moves more to the right, creating a spiral effect
  • net movement is 90º to wind direction
274
Q

Ekman transport

A

net movement of water results in upwelling or downwelling

275
Q

Ekman transport in W NA

A
  • current dominantly N–> S
  • coriolis deflects water to the right
  • net movement away from shore
  • water from deeper rises to replace it = upwelling
276
Q

our current system

A

we are pretty much right between Alaska current and California current, sometimes it moves up/down

277
Q

importance of upwelling

A

deliver new larvae

stimulates PP - food for suspension feeders, food for planktotrophic larvae

278
Q

strength, direction of upwelling

A

change: between seasons, within seasons, between yeas, day-to-day

279
Q

seasonal upwelling variability

A

VI upwelling strongest May-July

downwelling strongest in winter

280
Q

within season upwelling variability

A

upwelling strength increases w/ wind speed

281
Q

interannual upwelling variability

A

ENSO

-upwelling stronger in La Niña years

282
Q

when california current is strong

A

upwelling

283
Q

when california current is strong

A

upwelling

284
Q

impact of strong upwelling

A

high nutrients but they are drawn away from coast

285
Q

impact of strong downwelling

A

low nutrients

286
Q

intermittent upwelling theory

A

intermittent upwelling (switch between upwelling and downwelling) is best – nutrients are supplied and aren’t carried away

287
Q

intermittent upwelling hypotheses tested

A
  • if ecological processes have unimodal rlt’shp w/ upwelling strength
  • if ecological processes have monotonic rlt’shp w/ upwelling intermittency
288
Q

intermittent upwelling study

A

measure Chl a, barnacle mussel settlement and recruitment, barnacle/mussel growth rates, competition, predation

289
Q

ecological subsidies vs upwelling index

A

Chl a (phytoplankton) vs upwelling
recruitment (larvae) vs upwelling
both show hump-shaped response

290
Q

when alaska current is strong

A

downwelling

291
Q

intermittent upwelling hypothesis conclusions

A
  • data support that ecological processes will have a unimodal relationship w/ upwelling strength
  • only some data support the ecological process - upwelling strength monotonic relationship (most processes did not increase linearly with increased intermittency)
292
Q

why do only some data support the ecological processes increasing with intermittency relationship

A
  • over intermittent’ upwelling - not enough time to respond to nutrients
  • differences in tides - the over intermittent sites were in California where tides are mixed semi-diurnal, might give predators longer stretches to feed – high predator activity might obscure results
293
Q

important in determining community structure

A

competition (Connell)

predation (Paine’s seastars)

294
Q

ecological interaction vs environmental stress, competition

A

competition is high in relative importance when environmental stress is low

295
Q

ecological interaction vs environmental stress, predation

A

predation is high in relative importance when environmental stress is low

296
Q

biological forces are important when

A

physical conditions are benign

297
Q

when physical conditions are stressful

A

environmental conditions are more important

298
Q

requires more benign conditions

A

predation, predators are more sensitive to environmental stress

299
Q

Menge-Sutherland model

A

relative importance of ecological interaction vs environmental stress
predation high at low envt stress
environmental high at high envt stress
competition high in the middle

300
Q

hypotheses to describe zonation

A

settlement
physical factors
biological factors

301
Q

settlement and zonation

A

supply side ecology
do organisms decide where to settle
do organisms grow where they settle

302
Q

physical factors and zonation

A

desiccation tolerance

303
Q

biological factors and zonation

A

grazing
predation
competition

304
Q

do organisms simply grow where their larvae settle

A

not always
some organisms move after they settle
some larvae move towards adults of their species

305
Q

propagules

A

new settlers

306
Q

do physical factors affect zonation

A

yes, desiccation especially

but not the only important distribution factor

307
Q

critical tide level hypothesis

A
  • old, discredited
  • seaweed zonation differences due to amount of time species spend under water, physical factors determine upper and lower distribution limit
  • doesn’t explain animal distributions
308
Q

what really describes zonation

A

a mix of everything

  • tolerance to abiotic conditions sets upper limit
  • biotic/ ecological interactions set lower limit
309
Q

updated Menge-Sutherland model

A

3D model
x= environmental stress
y = relative importance of ecol.
z = recruitment

310
Q

relative importance vs environmental stress, competition under high supply side

A

high supply = more competitors = competition more important

curves shift right, competition important under higher environmental stress than before

311
Q

relative importance vs environmental stress, competition under low supply side

A

low recruitment = lower range of competition = curves shift left
competition curve is thinner, shorter, or non-existent

312
Q

why is competition low at high levels of predation

A

predators decrease density of competitors per unit area

313
Q

relative importance vs environmental stress, predation, competition, environment, under low supply side

A

predation, competition both shift left or are non existent

if not organisms then no ecological interactions

314
Q

Menge-Sutherland conclusions

A
  • allows us to predict relative importance of env-org and org-org interactions
  • allows us to predict community composition/ zonation
315
Q

why would upwelling be important to rocky shore communities in california current system

A
  • delivers new larvae to community
  • stimulates PP (suspension feeder, larvae food)
  • strength, direction of upwelling changes
316
Q

sediment size

A

measured as: diameter, or log base 2 of diameter

317
Q

plotting sediment size

A

cumulative % vs size

settling velocity vs size

318
Q

cumulative weight graph

A
  • plot from small to large size sediment
  • plot as cumulative %
  • determine Q25, Q50, Q75
  • Q50 is median
319
Q

stoke’s law

A

subject sed sample to current of known velocity, determine how much of sample is carried by that velocity and how much settles
-faster current = more E

320
Q

sediment sorting

A

% of sample vs size

  • well sorted = clear median, low variety
  • poorly sorted = large variety of sizes
321
Q

sorting, S =

A

Q25 / Q75

322
Q

small S

A

well sorted (close to 1)

323
Q

interstitial water

A 
betweens sediment particles
organic rich (POM, DOM)
324
Q

porosity

A

proportion of sediment that is ‘empty’

325
Q

porosity is measured as

A

volume of water needed to saturate sediment

326
Q

what type of sediments are more porous

A

finer

well sorted

327
Q

why is poorly sorted sediment less porous

A

smaller grains fill the interstitial space, variable grain sizes fit together better

328
Q

permeability

A

rate of flow of water through sediments

329
Q

what type of sediment has higher permeability

A 
well sorted (more spaces)
coarser
330
Q

less permeable sediments are

A

waterlogged - water takes longer to flow through

331
Q

penetrability

A

how easy it is to penetrate (burrow) in the sediment

332
Q

penetrability depends on

A

sed size

porosity

333
Q

sediments that appear solid but behave like fluid if they experience pressure

A

thixotrophic

eg. quicksand

334
Q

sediments harden when they experience pressure

A

dilatant sediments

335
Q

which types of sediments (in regards to penetrability) are easier to burrow into

A

thixotrophic (fluid-like)

336
Q

other sediment characteristics

A

mineralogy

shape

337
Q

mineralogy

A

quartz fragments - terrigenous

carbonates - biogenic

338
Q

seiment shape

A

roundness (ragged edges not good for burrowing)

339
Q

sediment and oxygen

A
  • O2 rich in surface from o-a exchange, PP

- O2 used up at depth, respiration

340
Q

O2 rich sed

A

lighter

O2 poor seds are dark/black

341
Q

how is oxygen used up in surface sediment

A

heterotrophic bacteria - respiration - degrade OM

342
Q

how is oxygen used up in deep sediment

A

anaerobic bacteria use sulphate for respiration and produce hydrogen sulfide
SO4 – H2S (black)

343
Q

boundary between oxidation and reduction in sediments

A

RPD - redox potential discontinuity

344
Q

microorganism zonation in sediment

A

High O2 surface: mixed photosynthetic organisms
Anoxic layer 1: fermenting bacteria
Anoxic layer 2: sulfate reducing bacteria
Anoxic layer 3: methanogenic bacteria

345
Q

Oxic sediment microorganisms

A

benthic diatoms
cyanobacteria
heterotrophic bacteria

346
Q

fermenting bacteria

A
  • produce alcohol and fatty acids

- test for fermenting bacteria by testing for fatty acids

347
Q

sulfate reducing bacteria

A

SO4 – H2s

348
Q

methanogenic bacteria

A

when sulfate runs out

produce CH4

349
Q

muddy sediment characteristics

A 
more water logged
more OM
more bacterial productivity, and therefore anoxia 
shallower O2 layer 
shallower RDP 
darker, smellier
350
Q

types of organic matter

A

allochthonous

autochthonous

351
Q

examples of particulate organic matter

A 
filamentous diatoms
bacterial mats
detritus (seaweed, seagrass)
wood
feces
352
Q

importance of OM

A

fuels bacterial respiration

source of food for infauna

353
Q

allochthonous

A

sediment that originated at a distance from its present position

354
Q

how to measure OM in sediment

A
  • asking - weigh sed, cook @ 500ºC, burn off OM

- use weight of small size fractions as proxy

355
Q

variability in sediment

A

where they come from

how they are transported

356
Q

sediment transport

A

wind
waves
tides
stream, creeks, rivers

357
Q

wavelength

A

crest to crest or trough to trough

358
Q

wave height

A

crest to trough

359
Q

wave frequency

A

number of wave crests passing point A per second

360
Q

autochthonous

A

sediment thatformed in its present position

361
Q

wave period

A

time required to pass from one crest to the next

362
Q

a wave ‘feels’ the bottom when

A

water is shallower than 1/2 wavelength

363
Q

what happens when wave ‘feels’ bottom

A

slows, wavelength shortens, period remains unchanged, crests become peaked - E packed into less space, wave approaches critical ratio

364
Q

critical ratio (wave)

A

1:7 wave heigh : wave length

wave breaks

365
Q

systems of sediment transport

A

longshore current system

circulation cell system

366
Q

longshore current

A
  • waves hit beach obliquely
  • 2 directions of sediment movement
  • swash (oblique) and backwash (straight back out)
  • direction of longshore drift is down the beach
367
Q

circulation cell system

A
  • current hits beach dead on
  • energy bifurcates
  • water concentrates on way back out = rip current
368
Q

waves move sediment if

A

force from water flow > than threshold force required to move sediment
-bigger waves move bigger seds

369
Q

if grains are too big for the waves

A

they will sediment out

370
Q

swash vs backwash energy

A

swash velocity > backwash
swash carries coarser sediments
backwash carries fine sediments out

371
Q

areas of fast currents =

A

lots of big rocks and boulders

372
Q

areas of slow currents =

A

lots of muds and clays

373
Q

tidal currents, sediments

A

tidal currents transport sediments

range determines strength of tide and E to transport sediment

374
Q

tidal strength

A

flow tides typically stronger than ebb tides

tidal currents vary in strength within tidal cycle, between seasons, etc

375
Q

exposed beach and sediment

A

bigger waves – larger sediment – waves prevent fine sed from accumulating

376
Q

sheltered beach and sediment

A

finer sediments accumulate due to lower wave strength – mudflats

377
Q

organisms in sandy beaches / mudflats

A

microbes - algae, cyanobacteria, other bacteria
infauna
mobile predators - crabs, shore birds, etc

378
Q

in fauna are classified by

A

size

macro, meio, micro

379
Q

photosynthesizes at the sediment surface

A

algae, cyanobacteria, heterotrophic bacteria
bloom cycles like pelagic primary producers
form mats at the surface

380
Q

microfauna

A

less than 63µm

often interstitial - on or between sediment grains

381
Q

meiofauna

A

63 - 500µm (pass through 0.5 mm screen)
can be interstitial
indicator organisms
provide a wide range of ecosystem function

382
Q

macrofauna

A

> 500µm (0.5mm)

larger than interstitial spaces

383
Q

microfauna examples

A

ciliates
tardigrades
cyanobacteria
diatoms

384
Q

infauna convergence

A

meiofauna

extremely abundant, span many taxa and all have same body structure

385
Q

endobenthic

A

meiofauna-sized organisms that move by displacing particles (burrowing)

386
Q

meiofauna phyla in a bucket of sand

A

up to 22

rain forests have ca 15

387
Q

infauna burrowing strategies

A

deep burrowers

shallow/fast burrowers

388
Q

meiofauna examples

A

ostracod
copepod
annelid
nematode

389
Q

deep burrowers

A

larger (eg. geoducks have big feet, can burrow deep)
develop heavy shell
long siphon

390
Q

mesobenthic

A

meiofaunal-sized organisms that live and move within the interstitial space

391
Q

shallow/ fast burrowers

A

annelid worms, small clams, crustaceans
limbs modified for digging
more delicate organisms burrow closer to surface

392
Q

bivalve, polychaete burrowing

A

hydrostatic skeleton - extend - anchor into sediment - dig/displace sediment - extend

393
Q

macrofauna examples

A

gastropod
polychaete
decapod
bivalve

394
Q

mole crab burrowing

A

shovel-like legs - burrow into sand - mechanically displace sediment

395
Q

burrowing strategy, sediment type

A

dry, coarse sediment – clam shoots water to liquefy sand before burrowing
teddy sed - rich in water and OM = sticky, bivalves/ polychaetes use proboscis to crack mud

396
Q

infauna tubes

A
  • discrete, solid structures formed by secrete material + sediment
  • eg. parchment worms build parchment tubes and circulate water/food with parapodia
397
Q

permanent burrows

A

not as solid as tubes
break apart when sampled
eg. lugworm (Arenicola spp.)

398
Q

subsurface burrows

A

formed by animals that move continually, feeding as they go

e.g. clams

399
Q

infauna morphology

A

all have worm-like body plans (increased SA, absorption)

tentacle-like structures for sediment attachment

400
Q

how infauna deal with low O2 in sediments

A 
siphons 
create currents through their burrows 
move/leave
reduce activity to reduce O2 consumption
more efficient O2 binding pigments
401
Q

oxybios

A

live in shallow seds
high O2 requirements
poor tolerance for sulphide

402
Q

live in deeper sediments
can tolerate low oxygen
can tolerate high sulfide
contain symbiotic sulphur reducing bacteria

A

thiobios

403
Q

ingest sediments to obtain organic matter for food

A

deposit feeders

404
Q

filter organic particles suspended in the water column with gills

A

suspension feeders

405
Q

deposit feeder characteristics

A

digest OM as they move

expel digested sediment, unwanted particles as pseudofeces

406
Q

deposit feeder example

A

lugworm

407
Q

what is in sediment

A

water
POM
DOM
inorganic particle

408
Q

POM composed of

A
  • living microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, benthic algae)

- dead particulate OM (detritus)

409
Q

major questions for deposit feeders

A

where does the nutrition come from? (detritus or bacteria)

how do they separate organic from inorganic?

410
Q

detritus in the beach ecosystem

A

fragmentation - physical break-down
leaching - loss of pigment
microbial colonization and decay

411
Q

why is leaching of detritus important for deposit feeding

A

pigments can act as deterrent for some microbes

412
Q

microbial stripping hypothesis

A

in fauna are not just eating detritus but also the microbes that cause detritus to decay and rot

413
Q

microbial stripping hypothesis, premise

A
  • increases N content of detritus

- makes detritus easier to digest

414
Q

C:N

A

common measure of nutrition
C generally from cellulose, low nutrition
N from proteins, higher nutrition
low ratio = higher quality

415
Q

not all detritus has same nutritional value

A

kelp, algae = high N, P, and fatty acid

seagrass = low N, P, fatty acids; high cellulose

416
Q

amount of detritus on a beach

A

highly variable based on:

  • local production (eg. seagrass break up from waves)
  • tidal activity (e.g. dead plankton brought in by tide)
  • rivers (OM or sewage in streams, lakes, rivers)
417
Q

deposit feeder selection

A

selection can occur before or after ingestion

418
Q

thiobios

A

live in deeper sediments
can tolerate low oxygen
can tolerate high sulfide
contain symbiotic sulphur reducing bacteria

419
Q

deposit feeder, before feeding selection

A

some sift through particles and reject them if too big or not suitable
eg. fiddler crab

420
Q

deposit feeder, post feeding particle selection

A

defecate non-nutritious or too large particles (sand) = pseudofeces
eg. polychaetes

421
Q

OM is

A

sticky
well-attached to inorganic particulates
possibly difficult to separate from inorganics

422
Q

how do organisms separate OM from inorganics

A
  • specialized enzymes to separate them

- secrete surfactants to separate them

423
Q

surfactants

A

detergent-like molecules

wash the OM off

424
Q

surface deposit feeding

A

echinoderms: roam the surface and ingest particles
polychaetes: some lay tentacles to comb through seds., tentacles may carry food back to mouth or transport particles via ciliary action
eg. spaghetti worm

425
Q

types of suspension feeding

A

active - create current to bring particles in
eg. parchment worm, feather duster worm, barnacle
passive - rely on currents to bring particles

426
Q

appendages for suspension feeding

A

mole crab uses comb-like antennae
bivalves use siphons
worms may use palps, tentacles

427
Q

why are suspension feeders selective

A

otherwise would fill up w/ non-food materials

428
Q

suspension feeder particle selection

A
  • polychaetes use cilia-like structures to detect and reject particles
  • bivalves use gills, palp to reject inorganic / toxic particles
429
Q

palp

A

folded, ciliated organ

430
Q

particle selection study in Pacific Oyster

A
  • follow particles through oysters gut w/ endoscope
  • find that [algal particles] increases in basal tract relative to what goes in
  • gill sensory mechanism diverts OM
431
Q

switching feeding modes

A

D. excentricus sand dollar is facultative suspension feeder depending on current - context dependent

  • high tides: incline body, ‘stand up’
  • low tides: flat, deposit feed
432
Q

bioturbation

A

-local-scale biological disturbance which changes the environment in a way that influences other organisms

433
Q

burrowing

A
  • type of bioturbation

- increase physical complexity of ecosystem

434
Q

burrowing impact on sediment

A
  • changes size distribution, stirring and sorting
  • oxygenation of surrounding sediment
  • RDP depression
  • changes to nutrient and microbe distribution, activity
435
Q

sediment mixing experiment

A
  • put inert particles at surface of burrow to see how much is brought down into burrow
  • increased concentration of beads at depth in burrow
  • therefore ‘sediment’ from surface is brought to depth
436
Q

burrow colonization

A
  • not just organisms making them

- potential habitat for commensal organisms

437
Q

example of burrow co-habitation

A

goby fish, crabs in worm burrow

438
Q

photoautotroph bioturbation

A

diatoms, cyanobacteria

  • secret mucilage (extracellular polymer glue) that binds them together w/ sediments - makes sediment sticky, prevents erosion
  • oxygenate sediment
439
Q

Bioturbation characteristics

A
  1. increases habitat structure
  2. reworks sediment (changes size distribution)
  3. changes sediment chemistry (oxygen incursion, bio-irrigation)
  4. increase microbial activity (oxygen changes, microbial gardening)
  5. changes habitat (provide new habitat for some organisms, prevent other organisms from colonizing)
440
Q

bottom-up forces

A

environmental factors

eg. desiccation, oxygen, temperature

441
Q

top-down forces

A

predators, competition

e.g. starfish in rocky intertidal

442
Q

Most important factors structuring rocky shores

A
  1. environmental stress
  2. competition
  3. predation
  4. disturbance
  5. supply-side ecology
443
Q

what are rocky shore factors not as well known in sandy shores

A

experiments harder

  • animals ‘invisible’
  • animals move (most intertidal are sessile)
  • patchiness
  • have to disturb habitat to view animals (can’t observe natural habitat)
444
Q

soft shore experiments

A

more difficult

  • cages have to be designed to encompass 3 dimensions
  • organisms are mobile and burrowing
  • predators
445
Q

important environmental factors

A 
temperatures
disturbance (waves)
oxygen
dessication
emersion/submersion
446
Q

submersion and emersion, soft sediment shore

A
  • desiccation not as important as rocky shore, some water
  • water too low for suspension feeding, not enough water
  • biological stress from emersion not physical stress
447
Q

oxygen, soft sediment shore

A
  • only really an issue in low tides, anoxic water events

- organisms ok as long as ‘connected’ to the water (unless water is anoxic)

448
Q

temperature, soft sediment shore

A

sediment are a good buffer from extreme weather

449
Q

does biological stress from emersion always affect soft shore organisms

A

no, clam surfing - changes distance from MTL to stay in water

450
Q

soft shore sediment zonation experiment

A
  • move clams higher up in shore - growth affected
  • clams normally found higher suffered less
  • infauna appear to be adapted to different levels of desiccation (low-level specialists, high-level specialists)
451
Q

competition in the sandy shore

A
  • more 3D space, segregate vertically
  • space competition (interference competition) not a factor
  • nutrient competition? (possible, depends)
452
Q

to demonstrate there is nutrient competition

A

have to demonstrate food is limiting

-do org’s respond to increase in food

453
Q

change in health based on increase/ decrease of resource

A

exploitative competition

454
Q

food limitations in soft shore sediments

A
  • food resources patchy and seasonal
  • changing concentrations of OM in sediment likely impact deposit feeders
  • suspension feeders not likely to experience long-term limitation
455
Q

soft shore sediment patchiness

A

food supply is patchy – communities are patchy

-Ulva patches = snail patches = behaviour response to patchiness

456
Q

competitive exclusion principle

A

species that use limiting resources identically cannot coexist

457
Q

competition among similar species might cause

A

character displacement

458
Q

character displacement

A
  • evolutionary process

- separation of morphological characteristics such as size, and therefore resource exploitation

459
Q

example of character displacement in soft shore

A

-2 deposit feeding snails
-same size when at separate beaches
-different sizes when at same beach
(possibly extraneous variables, type of habitat, lagoon vs open beach)

460
Q

predation in soft sediment

A
  • prey hidden (burrow)
  • defense trade-off
  • secretions
461
Q

defense trade-off bivalves

A

bivalves with thin shells burrow deeper

462
Q

soft sediment anti-predation secretions

A

some polychaetes - secrete bromide-containing aromatic compounds - deterrent

2016/2017 (15 decks)

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