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2016/2017 > BIOL 321 Part II > Flashcards

BIOL 321 Part II Flashcards

1
Q

Bryozoa lifestyle

A

colonial, sessile, suspension feeders

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2
Q

Individual bryozoan

A

zooid
very tiny (mm’s)
lophophore

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3
Q

lophophore

A

funnel of ciliated tentacles used for suspension feeding

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4
Q

Bryozoan exoskeleton

A

zooecium

often calcified

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5
Q

Bryozoan digestion

A

u-shaped digestive tract

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6
Q

why is u-shaped digestive tract appropriate for exoskeleton enclosed organisms

A

if posterior end is closed feces would accumulate

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7
Q

Bryozoan compartments

A

2 coelomic compartments - lophophoral coelom, perivivsceral coelom

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8
Q

Bryozoan organs

A

no specialized organs for gas exchange, excretion/osmoregulation, internal fluid circulation

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9
Q

How do Bryozoans accomplish gas exchange/fluid circulation without organs

A

ciliated mesothelium circulate fluids/gases

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10
Q

Bryozoan colony form diversity

A

stoloniferous
encrusting
erect

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11
Q

encrusting bryozoan colonies

A

zooids lie flat on substrate w/ dorsal surface attached to substrate

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12
Q

stoloniferous bryozoan colony

A

creep over rocks, zooids bud up from stolon

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13
Q

erect Bryozoans

A

flat blades

branched fronds

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14
Q

solitary bryzoan

A

Monobryozoan
solitary, motile, infaunal- interstitial fluids of sand grains, extensions hold on to sand grains, contact to pull organism down

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15
Q

Bryozoan polymorphs

A

heterozooid

autozooid

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16
Q

Heterozooid

A

usually defensive, non-feeding

e.g. avicularium, operculum snaps shut to deter predators/organisms settling

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17
Q

Autozooid

A

feeding, reproducing

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18
Q

Vibraculum

A

type of heterozooid (Bryozoan)

elongate ‘whips’ swarm around colony, dislodge settling/predators/used as ‘legs’ for movement

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19
Q

Bryozoan reproduction

A

larva -settles -metamorphosis -initial zooid (founder)- aseuxal budding - more individuals = colony
sexual reproduction to form new colony

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20
Q

Bryozoan circular colony

A

founder cell in middle

budding takes place around circumference

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21
Q

periphery of encrusting bryozoan colony

A

budding zone

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22
Q

brown body

A

degenerated mass of zooid tissue, only epidermis +mesothelium, regressed zooid

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23
Q

what happens with brown body

A

regenerate whole new zooid w/ brown body in stomach - defacate it out

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24
Q

why do zooids regress and regenerate?

A

possibly method of dealing with toxin/waste build up

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25
Q

Bryozoan defense

A 
heterozooids
colonialism
chemical defense
induced defences
calcification of frontal membrane
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26
Q

colonial defense

A

strength in numbers, genome maintained - unlikely predator will eat whole colony, can regenerate

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27
Q

what are chemical defenses

A

secondary metabolites
deter predators
antibiotics

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28
Q

Bryozoan secondary metabolites

A

bryostatin - appears to have anti-cancer, anti-alzheimer properties, synthesized by symbiotic bacteria

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29
Q

why is it important to calcify frontal membrane of Bryozoan

A

flexible frontal membrane leaves them vulnerable to predation
e.g. nudibranch slices frontal membrane w/ radulae and sucks out bryozoan

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30
Q

Induced defense, bryozoa

A

initially put all E into reproduction, predator comes, w/i 48hrs of predator feeding zooids form calcareous spines on corners of zooecia

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31
Q

Bryozoan frontal membrane calcification

A

frontal surface inflexible to protect against predators

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32
Q

how can lophophore retreat with inflexible frontal membrane

A

sac inside of perivisceral compartment is filled w/ fluid, ejects fluid out pore to make room for lophophore

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33
Q

periversceral fluid-containing sac in Bryozoans with frontal membrane calcification

A

Ascus

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34
Q

how is lophophore moved out in Bryozoan w/ frontal membrane calcification

A

parietal muscles expand balloon and water is sucked back in - forces lophophore out of way

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35
Q

how is lophophore retracted in a Bryozoan

A

lophophore retractor muscles

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36
Q

Bryozoan sexual characteristics

A

gametes arise from mesothelium
hermaphroditic (sequential or simultaneous)
sperm spawn through tentacular pores
external or internal fertilization

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37
Q

Bryozoan external fertilization

A

both gametes spawned externally

long-lived feeding larvae

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38
Q

Bryozoan internal fertilization

A

eggs maintained internally, brooded for short period, short-lived non-feeding larvae

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39
Q

Bryozoan egg brooder

A

ovicell (heterozooid)

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40
Q

Mollusca subphyla

A

Conchifera

Aculifera

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41
Q

Aculifera groups

A

Polyplacophora

also Chaetodermomorpha, Neomeniomorpha which we are not studying and are placaphora

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42
Q

Conchifera groups

A 
Monoplacophora
Cephalopoda s.g.
Scaphopoda s.g.
Bivalvia s.g. 
Gastropoda
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43
Q

Mollusca primitive characteristics

A

dorso-ventral differentiation
CaCO3 shell
mantle cavity, gills, osphradia
shell-attached muscles

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44
Q

chiton shell

A

8 articulating shell valves w/ 8-pairs dorsal ventral shell-attached muscles (from shell-foot)

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45
Q

Mollusc dorso-ventral differentiation

A

visceropallium

cephalopodium

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46
Q

Chiton osphradia

A

2 sensory organs - on either side of anus

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47
Q

Mollusca gill

A

ctenidium - central axis w/ gill lamella, afferent/efferent blood vessels

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48
Q

Mollusca circulation

A

hemal fluid in to afferent blood vessel, through each gill lameli, out efferent blood vessel

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49
Q

Mollusca water circulation

A

in between each lameli - countercurrent to hemal flow to maximize efficiency of gas exchange

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50
Q

Mollusca reduced coelom

A

pericardium

containing heart, attached to metanephridia, gonads, associated with gut

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51
Q

metanephridia, Mollusca

A

heart contraction = ultrafiltration

fluid down metanephridial ducts = selective reabsorption

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52
Q

Mollusca gonads

A

derived from mesothelium

most extant organisms do not retain connection between gonad-pericardium

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53
Q

Mollusca digestion

A

mouth, radular cartilage, foregut, radular sac

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54
Q

radular sac

A

secretes riot of radular chitinous teeth on ribbon

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55
Q

radular cartilage

A

rods, support radular teeth

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56
Q

how radula works

A

muscle protrudes radular cartilages out of mouth carrying radular teeth - pull teeth back in scraping substrate

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57
Q

Mollusc radula + cartilages

A

buccal mass

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58
Q

Mollusc nervous system

A 
circum-esophogeal nerve ring (cephalopodium)
visceropallial nerve cords
pedal nerve cords
pleurovisercal ganglia 
cerebral ganglia 
pedal ganglia
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59
Q

distinctive characteristics of chitons

A 
minimal cephalization
dorso-ventral flattening
dorsal shell w/ 8 articulating valves
mantle assisted substrate adhesion
radula with magnetite caps
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60
Q

Chiton cephalization

A

non-ganglionated

non-active, head non-specialized

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61
Q

Why chitons have dorsoventral flattening

A

low profile helps avoid being washed away - adaptation to wave swept shores

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62
Q

Chiton substrate adhesion

A

very muscular foot + mantle periphery for clinging

lift mantle roof = negative pressure = suction

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63
Q

Chiton radula caps

A

Mollusc teeth are replaced but chitons cap w/ magnetite (Fe containing bxomineral) to reduce wear

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64
Q

Chiton reproduction

A

dioecious, broadcast spawn (m and f), external fertilization, gametes from gonad mesothelium, ciliated non-feeding larvae

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65
Q

largest metazoan phyla

A

Arthropoda

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66
Q

2nd largest metazoan phyla

A

Mollusca

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67
Q

Class Monoplacophora

A

very rare, deep sea, only known from fossils, single dorsal shell, ventrally similar to chiton, sister clade to rest of conchifera

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68
Q

Monoplacophora ventral

A

mouth, anus, lateral mantle cavity w/ ctenidia, 8 dorsal shell muscles

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69
Q

Gastropod shell

A

isometric coiling -coils in same plane, only see one from front view -asymmetric coiling

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70
Q

Accommodating coiled shell, gastropod

A

visceroplallial elongation and coiling

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71
Q

gastropod shell central pillar

A

columella, CaCO3, central coiling axis

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72
Q

shells are designed to be

A

protective retreat

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73
Q

gastropod shell-attached muscles

A

single or single paired
hold on to columella
run down to foot/head to pull head in, close operculum

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74
Q

changes from monoplacophoran to hypothetical intermediate gastropod

A 
Shell coils (exogastric) and elongate dorsoventrally, 
reduced shell aperture, mantle cavity, # shell muscles, #ctenidia
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75
Q

changes from hypothetical intermediate gastropod to derived gastropod

A

Torsion (180ºrotation) of visceropallium relative to cephalopodium, rotation of shell (endogastric shell coil)- anus + mantle cavity over mouth

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76
Q

evidence of torsion

A

anatomy of living gastropod

development of basal gastropod

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77
Q

asymmetries in gastropods

A
  1. asymmetric coil of shell (goes to the left or right)
  2. torsion
  3. non-bilateral organs/structures (majority of gastropods have left ctenidium/osphradium)
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78
Q

extant gastropod anatomy as evidence of torsion

A

cross-over of visceropallial nerve connectives

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79
Q

gastropod veliger larva

A

tiny calcareous shell swimming side down, 2 velar lobes, modified trochophore (prototroch, metatroch for feeding)

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80
Q

torsion advantages

A

mantle cavity and therefore ctenidia are moved anterior - water that is brought in is less disturbed by movement

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81
Q

torsion advantage to developing gastropod

A

mc below foot = pull foot in first, velum in last; velum is more valuable and vulnerable than foot, advantageous to have mc above head and pull foot in last

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82
Q

development of basal gastropod as evidence of torsion

A

ontogenetic torsion

see foot on both sides of shell in developmental stage

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83
Q

torsion hypothesis test, abelone

A

1 batch pre-torsional larvae, 1 post-torsional; both have predators; found no difference in # survivors- no evidence of torsion being advantageous

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84
Q

1 problem of torsion

A

results in deeper anterior mantle cavity - water needs to be frequently circulated for aeration and removing waste

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85
Q

solutions to fouling

A

restricted mantle cavity
shell perforations
shit of anus to right side

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86
Q

all gastropods with shell perforations

A

have 2 ctenidia

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87
Q

shifted anus, gastropod

A

Majority of gastropods; loss of right ctenidium, osphradium;
shift anus to right;
oblique current through mantle cavity; pick up fecal material last on way out

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88
Q

gastropod snorkle

A

siphon

right side, highly mobile, muscular, samples water and picks up chemical signatures

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89
Q

alternative hypothesis for gastropod body

A

unilateral enlargement of mantle cavity- 2 mc’s and one expands in different ways

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90
Q

types of gastropod MC enlargement methods

A

monotocardian
diotocardia
heterobranchia

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91
Q

monotocardian

A

enlarged MC, ctenidia on left, anus on right

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92
Q

diotocardian

A

enlarged MC, 2 ctenidia (L/R), anus in middle

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93
Q

heterobranchia

A

MC not enlarged, reduced to 1 ctenidia

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94
Q

gastropod cephalization

A

fast moving, A-P axis = need for receptors, ganglionization: 1+ tentacle sets, eye spots, series of ganglia

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95
Q

Class Gastropoda main features

A

protective shell - single plate into coiled cone
torsion
pronounced development of head

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96
Q

Class Gastropoda groups

A

Patellogastropoda s.g.
Vetigastropoda s.g.
Caenogastropoda s.g.
Heterobranchia

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97
Q

Old Class Gastropoda phylogeny

A

Prosobranchia (Patellogastropoda, Vetigastropoda, Caenogastropoda) s.g. Opisthobranchia (Heterobranchia) s.g. Pulmonata (Heterobranchia)

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98
Q

Vetigastropoda

A

keyhole limpets, abelone

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99
Q

Caenogastropoda

A

majority of marine gastropods, well developed shells

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100
Q

Gastropoda primitive feeding method

A

herbivorous grazing using radula

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101
Q

radula

A

ribbon of teeth secreted by radular sac, protruded out of mouth to scrape rock

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102
Q

buccal cavity

A

area of gut that radula opens in to

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103
Q

vetigastropod feeding

A

many herbivorous grazers, retain primitive method

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104
Q

Caenogastropod feeding

A

many herbivorous grazers, retained primitive feeding method (radula); many predators with proboscis

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105
Q

Proboscis

A

right side, normally tucked in, used for feeding

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106
Q

herbivorous gastropod foregut

A

mouth - buccal cavity- anterior esophagus- mid-esophageal gland; salivary glands attach to buccal cavity

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107
Q

predatory gastropod foregut

A

deep in-pocket in anterior end = proboscis sac, buccal cavity = proboscis, esophagus greatly lengthened, mid-esophageal gland is enlarged and connected to esophagus by narrow gut

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108
Q

evidence of predatory gastropods

A

shell drills, leave bevelled edged hole on preys shell

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109
Q

how predatory gastropod makes shell drills

A

tip of proboscis has accessory boring organ - raps on shell = mechanical abrasion; also chelate shell = chemical dissolution

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110
Q

Cone snail

A

highly derived gastropod feeding, mostly tropical/subtropical, predatory caenogastropod, feeds on worms/molluscs/fish

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111
Q

Cone snail feeding

A

very long proboscis, w/ harpoon tooth and venom

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112
Q

cone snail harpoon tooth

A

apex of radular tooth is shaped like hollow harpoon, snail takes 1 tooth and places it at end of proboscis, tooth is connected to venom gland

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113
Q

cone snail venom gland

A

midesophogeal gland highly elongated ending in muscular ball specialized to synthesize and secrete conotoxins

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114
Q

conotoxin

A

neurotoxins, peptide that bind to Fe channels and neurotransmitters, rapidly immobilize prey, any 1 species may have 100’s

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115
Q

Heterobranchs

A

elaborated dorsal surface, secondarily deflected anus to posterior end (detorsion); loss of larval shell during metamorphosis

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116
Q

Heterobranch loss of shell

A

do have shell in juvenile form (and torsion), crawl out of shell and discard it and operculum

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117
Q

Heterobranch defense

A

chemical defense
escape behaviour
sequester nematocysts
autotomy

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118
Q

chemical defense, Heterobranch

A

dorsal chemical glands - unpallatable/toxic

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119
Q

where do Heterobranchs get chemical defense

A

some make own

many steal from prey (sponges, bryozoans) and put in dorsal gland sacs (cerata/papillae)

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120
Q

escape behaviour, heterobranch

A

touched by predator – lift off seafloor - d/v body undulations - catch current and float away

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121
Q

sequestering nematocysts, Heterobranchia

A

feed on cnidarian- sequester nematocyst- carried up to cerata and deposited- phagocitized - utilized

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122
Q

where are nematocysts stored in heterobranch

A

cnidosac - special sac at time of cerata lined by epithelium

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123
Q

how are heterobranchs able to utilize nematocysts?

A

secrete mucus that makes them not trigger (like clown fish) - may get stung at first until they learn the right formula (species specific)

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124
Q

Nudibranch autotomy

A

rapidly release body part, mainly cerata

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125
Q

terrestrial heterobranchs

A

snails, slugs; terrestrial; threats include desiccation, T changes

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126
Q

terrestrial heterobranch, breathing

A

closed mantle cavity = ‘lung’, pneumostome = pore, opening to lung (able to close)

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127
Q

adaptations for life on land (Heterobranchia

A

mantle cavity forms internalized lung
conversion of ammonia to uric acid
asetivation

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128
Q

Aestivation, heterobranchs

A

metabolic slow-down, hide in humid location,
tolerance of desiccation
ability to rapidly rehydrate

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129
Q

freshwater snail w/ air breathing adaptation

A

Caenogastropods, pneumostome + long siphon opening in to lung
(convergence w/ heterobranchs)

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130
Q

how gastropods can rehydrate

A

open spaces between epithelial cells

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131
Q

Vetigastropoda reproduction

A

broadcast spawn gametes, external fertilization

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132
Q

Caenogastropoda, Heterobranchia reproduction

A

internal fertilization, encapsulated eggs, juvenile crawls out of egg capsule

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133
Q

Class Bivalvia

A 
dv flattened body
2 shell valves
spacious lateral mantle cavity to house ctenidia 
minimal cephalization
no radula
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134
Q

Bivalve falttening

A

including foot, facilitate digging

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135
Q

why bivalves need 2 valves

A

life in substrate - need to remain open for circulation, need to shells to remain open - pressure would collapse mantle

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136
Q

Bivalve radula

A

none in extant members, feeding by suspension or deposit

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137
Q

bivalve water flow

A

along edge of shell or restricted to siphons

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138
Q

bivalve adductor muscles

A

pull valves together, cause tension in ligaments, when released ligaments pull shells open

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139
Q

Bivalve shell secretion

A

secreted by outer mantle lobe, sequential layers of bxomineral CaCO3 w/ crystals oriented in opposite directions - cross-hatched for strength

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140
Q

Bivalve mantle margin

A

sensory structures on periphery of mantle fold (middle lobe)

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141
Q

bivalve middle lobe

A

most exposed to environment, may contain photoreceptors, tentacles

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142
Q

bivalve outer lobe

A

secretes shell

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143
Q

bivalve inner lobe of mantle fold

A

‘muscle lobe’

has pallial muscles connected to shell valve to pull and tuck all soft tissues in side shells

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144
Q

Diversity of feeding in Bivalvia

A

prosobranch
lamellibranch
septibranch

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145
Q

Protobranchs

A

deposit feeder; use palp tentacles; gills for gas exchange only, ancestral feeding strategy, long paired siphons

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146
Q

palp tentacles

A

ciliated, deposit feeding in protobranchs

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147
Q

Protobranch ctenidium

A

gas exchange only

non-elaborate gill filaments on sides of gill axis

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148
Q

Lamellibranch

A

ctenidia for gas exchange and feeding, suspension feeders

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149
Q

lamellibranch ctenidia

A

elongate filaments, folded back to fit, highly ciliated to carry particles

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150
Q

lamellibranch folds

A

demibranchs

outer demibranch = closest to shell

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151
Q

Lamellibranch cilia

A

each ‘limb’ is surrounded by 3 types of cilia: lateral cilia, laterofrontal cilia, frontal cilia

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152
Q

lateral cilia, lamellibranch

A

short, on the ‘top/bottom’, create water current

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153
Q

laterofrontal cilia, lamellibranch

A

longer, point diagonally, intercept particles

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154
Q

Septibranch feeding

A

rare, predators, suction feeding, enormous inhalant siphon used for sucking in small organisms

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155
Q

septibranch ctenidia

A

modified gill = muscular, perforated diaphragm; closed shell, elevated muscular shelf = increased volume in inhalent chamber = suction

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156
Q

Bivalvia habitatlifestyle diversity

A

burrowers (majority; deeper = longer siphon)
attached to solid substrate
boring

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157
Q

example of shallow burrowing bivalve

A

cockle

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158
Q

e.g. of bivalve attached to solid substrate

A

mussels

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159
Q

Mussel attachment

A

secrete byssal threads

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160
Q

frontal cilia, lamellibranch

A

short, face out, frontal surface, carry particles down filament to elbow-like area of gil filament

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161
Q

example of deep burrowing bivalve

A

geoduck

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162
Q

how to use byssal threads

A

byssal gland by foot secretes fluid– fluid runs down foot, forms puddle– starts to harden - lift foot- move foot and repeat

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163
Q

oyster substrate attachment

A

cement w/ CaCO3

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164
Q

boring bivalve

A

shipworms

free-swimming larva, settle, metamorphose, feed/create tunnel

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165
Q

Class Scaphopoda

A

tusk shells, see text book ch 12

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166
Q

Class Cephalopoda

A

active, pelagic, predatory, smartest, largest, fastest molluscs, 3 subclasses, 1 extinct

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167
Q

Cephalopod molluscan characteristics

A

radula
molluscan-style gill (but not ciliated)
shell-secreting mantle (but reduced/lost in most extant)

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168
Q

Cephalopod unique characteristics

A

septate shell

highly modified foot

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169
Q

Cephalopod foot modifications

A 
prehensile appendage (arms, tentacles)
funnel
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170
Q

Cephalopoda groups

A

Nautiloidea - extant, since Palaeozoic, first known group (540Ma)
Ammonoidea - extinct end of Mesozoic, known from mid Paleo
Coleoidea - extant, known from end of Paleo

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171
Q

Nautilus

A

primitive cephalopod, tentacles have no suckers, external shell, hood, funnel

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172
Q

Nautilus shell

A

external, gas-filled chambers, chambers separated by septa, septa perforated for siphuncle

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173
Q

Squid

A

active, agile swimming, predatory feeding

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174
Q

squid example

A

Loligo

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175
Q

squid predation

A

visual predators- image-forming eyes, eye morphology convergent w/ vertebrates

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176
Q

Coleoidea metabolics

A

high metabolic rate, ventilate gills by pumping muscular mantle, closed circulatory system, systemic and branchial hearts

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177
Q

Coleoid branchial hearts

A

booster pumps to force blood through gills

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178
Q

Protostomia groups

A

Lophotrochozoa

Exdysozoa

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179
Q

Exdysozoan groups

A

Nematoda, Onychophoran, Arthropoda

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180
Q

Ecydsozoa shared morphological characteristics

A

Ecdysis

no motile cilia/flagella

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181
Q

Ecdysis, ecdysozoa

A

periodically moult exoskeleton/cuticle for growth

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182
Q

Phylum Nematoda basic characters

A

multilayered collagenous cuticle, 4 moults, longitudinal muscles only, pseudocoel, syncytial epidermis, anterior nerve ring, longitudinal cords, aberrant cilia, eutely

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183
Q

Nematode cilia

A

non motile, restricted to sensory function

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184
Q

eutely

A

embryo hatches w/ set # of somatic cells and never produces any more; growth only by enlargement of cells

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185
Q

Nematode body movement

A

thrashing motion; dorsoventral contractions; only useful for forward motion in dense medium

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186
Q

Needed for nematode locomotion

A

stiff cuticle;
fluid maintained under high pressure in pseudocoel;
longitudinal muscles

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187
Q

Nematode feeding

A

triradiated pharynx, muscle contraction opens lumen, have to actively open gut by muscular means b/c high pressure of gut, must drink water to actively push food down

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188
Q

Nematode reproduction

A

Asexual and sexual

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189
Q

nematode asexual reproduction

A

very rare - parthenogenesis (no budding or fission)

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190
Q

nematode sexual reproduction

A

dioecious, internal fertilization, males w/ copulatory spicules, ameboid sperm (aflagellate)

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191
Q

nematode developments

A

4 moults to adult stage; egg - 4 juveniles - adult; eutely

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192
Q

Dauer larva

A

Nematode facultative diapause, triggered by enviro. cues, age arrest (reduced metabolic rate), occurs at L2 (juvenile #2)

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193
Q

parasitic nematode examples

A

hookworm, wuchereria, golden nematode

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194
Q

Hookworm

A

intestinal parasite, 1 host, cuticle around mouth forms tooth/hook-like projections, consume blood from intestinal wounds, leads to anemia

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195
Q

Hookworm life cycle

A

adult worm in human intestine - eggs passed in feces - juv. 1 hatches - 2 moults - juv. 3 burrows into skin, often foot - moves to circulatory system - heart - lungs - trachea - pharynx– intestine

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196
Q

Wuchereria bancrofti

A

Nematode, Elephatiasis, microfilariae larvae clog lymphatic vessels, causes grotesque swelling, 2 hosts - human, mosquito

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197
Q

Wuchereria bancrofti life cycle

A

microfilariae - mosquito - moult - move to salivary gland - transmitted to human

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198
Q

Golden nematode

A

1 host, damaging potato parasite, cysts on roots are dead swollen fm bodies filled w/ eggs

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199
Q

Golden nematode distribution

A

Europe, Asia, Africa, Canada (Nfld, Central Saanich)

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200
Q

What golden nematode does

A

burrow in to roots, feed on root tissues, cause death/stunted growth

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201
Q

Caenorhabditis elegans

A

model organism for developmental genetics- tiny (few mm’s), short generation times (3days), hermaphroditic (self-fertilize), eutely (959 somatic cells)

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202
Q

why C elegans is a model organism

A

cell lineage known for all cells - map
synaptic connections btw neurons mapped
entire genome sequenced

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203
Q

ratio of animals that are arthropods

A

4/5

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204
Q

Phylum Arthropoda importance

A 
high successful by any metric
important food web component
medical importance
economic importance 
model organisms
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205
Q

Arthropods success

A

most specious, most individuals, ability to invade almost all habitats, etc.

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206
Q

Arthropods in food webs

A

important component - 1º and 2º consumers, removal of arthropods would collapse any ecosystem

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207
Q

e.g. Arthropod medical importance

A

mosquitos are disease vector

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208
Q

e.g. Arthropod economic importance

A

positive and negative

pollination, crop destruction

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209
Q

Arthropod phylogenetic controversies

A

monophyletic or polyphyletic?
sister groups?
relations amongst major groups?
one of the most extensively debated subjects in evolutionary biology

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210
Q

Arthropod metamerism

A

convergent with Annelida

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211
Q

consolidations of multiple adjacent metameres into coherent morphological units with specialized functions

A

tagmosis

unit = tagmata

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212
Q

Arthropod exoskeleton

A

chitin (polysaccharide) + crosslinked proteins (sclerotization) secreted by epidermal epithelium

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213
Q

Arthropod exoskeleton functions

A

support
protection (predators, mechanical abrasion)
facilities movement

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214
Q

exoskeleton movement function

A

transmits force of muscle contraction

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215
Q

Parts of arthropod exoskeleton

A

epicuticle (lipids, waxes)
Protocuticle (exocuticle + endocuticle)
Epidermis

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216
Q

axial arthropod skeleton

A

4 hardened plates (sclerites): top = term, bottom = sternum, sides = pleuron

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217
Q

appendicular arthropod skeleton

A

articles - thin hollow tubes connected to form appendages

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218
Q

arthropod jointed appendages

A

joints formed by thin, flexible exoskeleton (articular membrane)

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219
Q

movement of arthropod appendages

A

antagonistic muscle bands
condyle
many appendages/articles

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220
Q

Arthropod antagonistic muscles

A

extensor and flexor muscles

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221
Q

condyle

A

one article fits precisely into the other - only permits movement in 1 direction

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222
Q

Benefit of many articles in arthropod appendages

A

movement in different directions/planes = large range of motion

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223
Q

Adaptive potential of arthropod appendages

A

versatile raw material:

  • can be sculpted into diff. shapes/functions
  • each article can be precisely moved by muscles
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224
Q

exoskeleton tools

A

sensory, mouthparts, prey capture, crawling, swimming, escape behaviour

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225
Q

arthropod secondary body compartment

A

hemocoel separated by diaphragm in to pericardial and peravisceral

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226
Q

Arthropod nephridium

A

epithelial tubes capped by epithelial sac = metanephridium
excretory tubes homologous to metanephridium
saccule homologous to shrunken coelom(?)

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227
Q

extra consequences of exoskeleton

A

moulting

sensilla

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228
Q

Arthropod growth

A

periodic moults under hormonal control- secrete inactive chitinases

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229
Q

moulting process, cellular

A

glandular cells secrete inactive chitinase (proenzyme) - new epicuticle secreted - proenzyme activated - digest endocuticle - split out at areas of weakness

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230
Q

new exoskeleton

A

week/soft, not cross linked - pump up with air/water -make bigger before hardening - harden - shrink back down - have room

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231
Q

sensilla

A

sensory, ball and socket joint, neurons w/ dendrites, lower exoskeleton cover

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232
Q

What is Arthropod sister group

A

Onychophora

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233
Q

Phylum Onychophora

A

velvet worm, low species #s compared w/ arthro. (180), very humid terrestrial, chitinous cuticle, metameric, non-jointed appendages, annelid/arthropod, distinct terminal ends (claws)

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234
Q

earliest known Arthropod

A

Hallucigenia, Burgess Shale, Field BC, early Cambrian

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235
Q

Arthropoda subphyla

A

Trilobitomorpha
Chelicerata
Mandibulata

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236
Q

Chelicerate tagmata

A

2 tagmata
Prosoma
Opisthosoma

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237
Q

Chelicerate # of appendages

A

Prosoma - 6 pr.

Opisthosoma - variable

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238
Q

Chelicerata first pr appendages

A

chelicerae

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239
Q

Chelicerata 2nd pair appendages

A

pedipalps

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240
Q

Chelicerata classes

A

Merostomata
Arachnida
Pycnogonida

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241
Q

Merostomata

A

1 genus (4spp.) extant, marine, horseshoe crab

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242
Q

Merostomata e.g.

A

Limulus sp.

horse shoe crab

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243
Q

Merostome morphology

A

2 tagmata: prosoma (A), opisthosoma (P);

telson, compound eye (unique)

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244
Q

Merostome prosoma

A

shovel-shaped to facilitate sediment burrowing

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245
Q

telson

A

not true metamere, hinged to body, d-v movements, aids in ‘righting’ flipped over body

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246
Q

Merostome appendages

A

Prosoma: chelicerae, pedipalp, (mouth), 4 walking legs

247
Q

chelate

A

pincer-like appendage

248
Q

article

A

podomere (segment of appendage)

249
Q

Merostome posterior appendages

A

not chelate
‘pusher legs’
push off sediment
clean out gills

250
Q

Merostome opisthosome

A

6pr appendages fused in to flaps = gill opercula

251
Q

Merostome gill opercula

A

thicker exoskeleton protecting book gills (very thin exo.)

wave to oxygenate gills

252
Q

gnathobase

A

proximal joint/ process of arthropod appendage, modified to aid in carrying/ masticating food

253
Q

Class Arachnida

A

scorpions, spiders, ticks, mites
terrestrial, largest group of chelicerata, few opisthosome appendages, predators, malpighian tubules, book lungs/tracheae, spermatophores

254
Q

Arachnid feeding

A

mostly predatory, mostly on other arachnids

255
Q

How to feed on arachnids

A

must get in to exoskeleton - rip up, vomit digestive enzymes, suck up sap

256
Q

malpighian tubules

A

lined tubules extend from gut and float in hemocoel, take up rates and crystallize- move down tubule - removed from anus - save water

257
Q

Book lung

A

internalized book gill

delicate epidermis layers covered by thin exoskeleton

258
Q

tracheal tubules

A

tubular, branched, invagination of epithelia w/ exoskeleton floating in hemocoel

259
Q

Arachnid reproduction

A

internal fertilization

spermatophores - protected bundles of sperm

260
Q

scorpion appendages

A

Prosoma: chelicerae (small), 1 pr pedipalps (large, chelate), 4 pr walking legs
telson: stinger w/ neurotoxin glands

261
Q

Scorpion pedipalps

A

prey capture, ambush predator (only use stinger for big prey)

262
Q

pectine

A

comb-like sensory structure - high density of mechanoreceptors to detect substrate movements, opens to book lung, ventral side of prosoma

263
Q

Spider characteristics

A

no compound eyes, unique pedipalps, pedicel, spinneret

264
Q

Spider pedipalps

A

fm - sensory appendages
m- deliver sperm
not chelate, daggers

265
Q

Spider waist, between opisthosome and prosome

A

pedicel

narrow for movement = flexibility of spinneret

266
Q

spinneret

A

many spigots release strands of silk

267
Q

spider fertilization

A

no spermatophores, extrude sperm on to silk, pedipalp sucks it up in to chamber, fits in to fm gonopore like lock&key

268
Q

functions of spider silk

A 
sperm transfer
egg cases
prey capture
aqualung 
ballooning
269
Q

ballooning

A

move through the air by releasing threads to catch the wind

270
Q

mites/ticks

A

huge diversity- aquatic, predator/ herbivorous/ parasites

271
Q

mites/ticks appendages

A

hypostome
chelicera
pedipalp
4 pr walking legs

272
Q

mites/ticks parasitic feeding

A

attach to host - slice open host w/ chelicera - insert hypostome to anchor and hold position - use pedipalps to support body and for sensory

273
Q

Class Pycnogonida

A

sea spiders

ectoparasites, very small, puncture hole in host and suck out body fluid

274
Q

Pycnogonid body parts

A

Prosoma: proboscis, chelicera (chelifore), pedipalp, ovigerous leg, 4 prs legs
Opisthosoma great reduced, bears anus

275
Q

pycnogonid proboscis

A

forced through body wall of host to suck body fluid, chelicera help open wound for insertion

276
Q

pycnogonid oviparous leg

A

often only in m, used to carry eggs, males carry and brood eggs until hatching

277
Q

Arthropod groups

A

Chelicerata

Mandibulata

278
Q

Mandibulata groups

A

Myriapoda

Pancrustacea

279
Q

Pancrustacea

A

Crustaceans = Hexapoda

Ostracodes, Cirripedia, Malacostraca, Copepoda, Branchiopoda, Hexapoda, Remipedia

280
Q

Is crustacea monophyletic

A

no, paraphyletic

281
Q

mandibulata tagmata

A

2 or 3
head + trunk
or head+ thorax + abdomen

282
Q

Mandibulate head + thorax

A

cephalothorax (secondarily consolidated)

283
Q

tagmata in majority of Mandibulates

A

3

head+ thorax + abdomen

284
Q

Mandibulate appendages

A

head: 1-antennae, 2-antennae or X, 3-mandibles, 4-maxillae I, 5- maxillae II
(3prs mouthpart appendages)

285
Q

grasshopper mouthparts

A 
disarticulated
upper lip (labrum), 2 mandibles, 2 maxillae, lower lip (labium)
286
Q

biramous arthropod appendages

A

epipod, protopod

287
Q

biramous appendage protopod

A

2 basal articles made of multiple articles - exopod, endopod

288
Q

compound eyes

A

common in mandibulate

many hexagons = ommatidium

289
Q

ommatidium

A

single photoreceptor cartridge: each one samples section of visual field at different angle than neighbour, detecting slightly different visual field

290
Q

after ommatidium detects image

A

crystalline cone focuses incoming light - reticular cells covered in microvilli are receptors - open ion channels - membrane polarization - propagate action potential - brain -information

291
Q

Myriapoda tagmata

A

2:
head
thorax

292
Q

Myriapoda appendages

A

head: pair antennae, mandible, 2 pr maxillae

293
Q

What are myriapods

A

centipedes, millipedes

294
Q

centipedes

A

predators, poison claws, fast

295
Q

centipede poison claw

A

first trunk appendage

296
Q

centipede movements

A

fast effective stroke, slow recovery stroke, high speed, high gear, low power, not many legs on ground at once

297
Q

Millipede

A

herbivorous, slow, diplosegments

298
Q

diplosegment

A

2prs legs/segment

299
Q

millipede movement

A

slow effective stroke, fast recovery stroke, slow movement, low gear, high strength, most legs on ground at once pushing - strong walking

300
Q

What is hexapoda sister group

A

Remipedia - primitive body plan - annelid like, not very successful

301
Q

Hexapoda terrestrial adaptations

A

Minimize water loss
Avoid/tolerate temperature extremes
Wings/flight

302
Q

Hexapoda water loss

A

minimized via: waxy epicuticle (myriapods lack waxes in epicuticle), mapighian tubules, water reabsorption (specialized rectum), tracheal tubules

303
Q

Hexapod malpighian tubules

A

tubules in hemocoel take up urates, precipitate uric acid (non-soluble), pass w/ feces

304
Q

glow worm

A

glow produced w/ malpighian tubules - sticky silk threads ensnare prey

305
Q

Hexapod tracheal tubules

A

hollow cylindrical invaginations of body wall, dendritically branched, end on cell body, O2 delivered directly to cell via tube, lined inside by exoskeleton

306
Q

opening of hexapod tracheal tubule

A

spiracle with filter hairs

307
Q

tracheal tubule support

A

Taenidia - circular thickenings of exoskeleton along length of tube to prevent collapsing

308
Q

Myriapod spiracles

A

not closable (dry out quicker)

309
Q

Hexapod temperature tolerance

A

behavioural
morphological
physiological

310
Q

behavioural temperature tolerance, hexapod

A

basking, stilting, crouching

311
Q

stilting

A

extend legs, lift body off of hot ground

312
Q

crouching

A

ground heats/cools slower than air, crouching close to rock to absorb heat

313
Q

morphological temperature tolerance strategies, hexapoda

A

insolating cuticler hairs, layer of hair around body prevents heat loss, e.g. bumblebee

314
Q

physiological temperature tolerance strategies, hexapoda

A

shivering, antifreeze proteins

315
Q

dangers of freezing

A

sharp crystals rupture cells

316
Q

AFP

A

Antifreeze Proteins

317
Q

Insect AFP

A

surround small ice crystals and prevent them from growing

318
Q

Hexapoda wings

A

mesothoracic, metathoracic wings

from 2nd, 3rd thoracic segments

319
Q

wingless insects

A

apterygotes

320
Q

insect wing morphology

A

largely exoskeleton, reinforced by wing veins (tracheal tubules), nerves, sensory receptors, tissues

321
Q

Advantage of flight

A

new niche space, dispersal to new resources, reach resources inaccessible to others, escape predators, find mates, migration, find suitable mating locations

322
Q

origin of wing hypotheses

A

Tergal lobes

Appendage derivatives

323
Q

Tergal lobe theory

A

tergum (top sclerite lobe) draw out laterally

324
Q

problems with tergal lobe theory

A 
no hinge (wings are hinged)
would require elaborate modification
325
Q

Appendage derivative hypothesis

A

epipods are hinged and fn in gas exchange

326
Q

testing appendage derivative hypothesis

A

Drosophila gene rubbin (Tc factor) is essential for wing development; mutated rubbin = little nub wings; look for homologues of rubbin in pancrustacea - mark - follow development

327
Q

results of appendage derivative hypothesis testing

A

rubbin traced to epipod in crayfish and brine shrimp- consistent with epipod-wing theory

328
Q

Hexapoda mouthpart diversification

A

chewing, sponging, piercing, sucking

329
Q

ancestral hexapod mouthparts

A

chewing type

e.g. grasshopper

330
Q

grasshopper mouthparts

A

heavily sclerotized, chewing:

labrum, 2 mandibles, 2 maxilla, labium (2nd pr maxillae), hypopharynx

331
Q

winged insects

A

pterygotes

332
Q

hypopharynx

A

tongue

salivary glands

333
Q

sponging mouthparts, hexapoda

A

labium (2nd pair maxillae)

tubules for sponging liquid food

334
Q

cutting + sponging mouthparts

A

sponging labium + cutting mandibles (cut open prey to sponge up fluids)

335
Q

piercing and sucking mouthparts

A

labium =protective sheeth, supports stiletto-like mouthparts - labrum, mandibles, maxillae = elongate spheres;
mandibles puncture, labrum forms sucking tube, salivary secretions make us itchy

336
Q

butterfly mouthparts

A

sucking; 1st pr maxillae curve together to form elongate sucking straw

337
Q

Hexapod development patterns

A

ametabolous
hemimetabolous
holometabolous

338
Q

exopterygote development

A

=external wing development
hemimetabolous development
larva similar to adult minus wings

339
Q

Ametabolous development

A

apterygotes
nymphs hatch from eggs that look exactly like adult, live in same habitat, feed on same material
stages of moults all look same
no major transitions in development (except reproduction)

340
Q

how are hemi/holometabolous youth different than adults

A

mainly they do not have wings

341
Q

holometabolous development

A

endopterygote development
larva very different than adult
internal wing development

342
Q

example of hemimetabolous development

A

grasshopper, locusts, mayfly larva, dragonfly larva

343
Q

what do hemimetabolous wings develop from

A

wing pads

344
Q

what do holometabolous wings develop from

A

imaginal discs

345
Q

holometabolous specialties

A

differential specialization
larva specialized for feeding
adult specialized for reproduction

346
Q

holometabolous metamorphosis

A

body rearrangement

exclusively adult features develop internally (wing, antennae, mouthparts)

347
Q

imaginal discs

A

nests of stem cells that differentiate in to various adult structures

348
Q

pupa stage, holometabolous development

A

rearrangement
larval structures destroyed
adult structures everted

349
Q

aquatic larva, Hexapoda

A

2 life history stages, major development, differential specialization

350
Q

mosquito life cycle

A

adult - eggs in water - larva (w) - pupa (w) - adult emerges in to air
larva has posterior siphon for breathing
pupae has anterior snorkle

351
Q

Hexapoda defensive strategies

A

morphological
behavioural
chemical
physiological

352
Q

Hexapod morphological defensive stratgies

A

shape and colour matching

e.g. stick bug

353
Q

hexapod behavioural defensive strategies

A

flight
projectile defecation
petiole clipping
behavioural crypsis

354
Q

projectile defication

A

release feces in projectile motion to hide location

355
Q

petiole clipping

A

fill up on leaf, chop off stem so hole-y leaf is not so visible

356
Q

example of behavioural crypsis

A

woolly aphid, ant, lacewing larvae

357
Q

example 2 of behavioural crypsis in hexapoda

A

leaf beetle larva

hold mass of own feces containing defensive chemicals from plant on back - disguise as something not tasty

358
Q

chemical defensive strategies, hexapoda

A

venomous stings (bees, wings)
sticky threads to entangle
(termites)
reflex bleeding (ladybug)

359
Q

relex bleeding

A

toxic hemal fluid released from self-directed rupturing of articular membrane between leg articles

360
Q

articular membrane

A

thin area of exoskeleton ‘joints’

361
Q

bombardier beetle chemical defence

A

abdominal reaction chamber - explosively eject hot, toxic fluid from anus

362
Q

bombardier beetle reaction

A

secrete hydroquinone and H2O2, catalaze reduces H2O2, O2 oxidizes hydroquinones (exothermic), hot quinones released (toxic)

363
Q

Non-hexapod pancrustacean characteristics

A

2 pair antennae (hexapods have 1)
biramous appendages (hexapods have uniramous)
nauplius larvae

364
Q

Nauplius larva

A

no cilia
3 pr muscle-operated appendages
single median eye
2 pr antennae, 1 pr mandibles = swimming

365
Q

Pancrustacea clades we focus on

A

Copepoda
Cirripedia
Malacostraca
Hexapoda

366
Q

generalized Malacostracan body plan

A

3 tagmata - abdomen (6 segments), thorax (8), head (5)

367
Q

Malacostracan head appendages

A

2pr antennae, 1 pr mandibles, 2 pr maxillae

368
Q

Malacostracan thorax appendages

A

thoracopods
8 prs appendages
maxillipeds, pereopods

369
Q

Malacostracan maxillipeds

A

1+ pairs often modified accessory mouthparts

370
Q

Malacostracan pereopods

A

walking legs

371
Q

Malacostraca abdomen appendages

A

6pairs
pleopods (swimming)
uropods

372
Q

Malacostracan head/thorax consolidation

A

tergal sclerites fused in to cephalothorax = carapace

lateral carapace flaps form chamber

373
Q

carapace gill chambers, Malacostracans

A

branchiostegites

374
Q

Euphausiacea

A

Malacostraca, krill

incomplete branchiostegite, no maxillipeds, specialized thoracopods

375
Q

Euphausiid thoracopods

A

setose biramous feeding appendages = feeding basket/sieve

376
Q

setose

A

exoskeleton elaborated in to bristle like extensions

377
Q

Pericarida, Malacostraca

A

Amphipoda, Isopoda

no carapace, 1pr thoracopods = maxilliped, eggs brooded in marsupium formed by oostegite

378
Q

Amphipoda

A

laterally compressed

379
Q

Isopoda

A

dorso-ventrally compressed (form ball)

380
Q

coxa

A

basal most article

381
Q

basal

A

bottom layer, closest to body

382
Q

Caprellid amphipod

A

skeleton shrimp, Malacostraca

383
Q

stomatopod

A 
mantis shrimp (Malacostraca)
tropical/semitropical, benthic, carapace does not cover entire length of thorax, functional telson, very aggressive
384
Q

Stomatopod appendages

A

5prs maxillipeds, 2pr raptorial appendages

385
Q

spearing appendages, stomatopod

A

species that burrow in soft substrate

386
Q

smashing appendages, stomatopods

A

species that live in rock crevices

387
Q

“most complex visual organ on the planet”

A

stomatopod compound eye

388
Q

Stomatopod eye

A

mounted on moveable stocks = 360ºrotation = large visual field
eye divided in half = stereo vision = broad focal range
12-19 photoreceptors w/ different photopigments

389
Q

human photoreceptors

A

3

390
Q

what is the different in having more photoreceptors if they cover the same spectral range

A

more sensitive to subtle difference in colour, and extremes (UV, polarized)
less ‘windows’ (missing coverage areas)

391
Q

Stomatopod telson functions

A

wide flat defense shield

reflect polarized light -signaling?

392
Q

Decapoda groups

A

Caridoa
Astacidea
Anomura
Brachyura

393
Q

Decapod general characteristics

A

(Malacostraca)
well-developed carapace (entire thorax)
3 pr maxillipeds

394
Q

Caridea

A 
Shrimp
delicate, slender pereopods
large muscular abdomen
well developed pleopods
holopelagic or pelago-benthic
395
Q

Caridea pereopods

A

delicate perching appendages

unique amongst the decapods

396
Q

Caridea pleopods

A

well developed, swimming

397
Q

Astacidea

A

Crayfish, lobsters (Decapoda, Malacostraca)

massive pereiopods, large muscular abdomen, pleopods, chelipeds

398
Q

Astacidea pleopods

A

swimming (but don’t swim a lot)

399
Q

Astacidea chelipeds

A

1st pair of pereopods - prey capture, defense, offence

400
Q

Brachyura

A 
true crabs (Decapoda, Malocastraca)
broad flat cephalothorax, heavy robust pereopods, chelipeds, reduced tucked in abdomen, closed gill chambers
401
Q

Brachyura appendages

A 
robust pereopods
1st pr pereopods = chelipeds
uropods - secondarily lost
pleopods - reduced/lost, retained in fm to hold eggs between thorax and abdomen
4 pr walking legs
402
Q

Anomura

A 
squat lobsters, hermit crabs (Decapoda, Malacostraca)
most diverse group of decapods
very reduced 5th pr pereopods
3 prs walking legs 
abdomen well developed
403
Q

hermit crab

A

abdomen has spiral asymmetry to fit gastropod shell
pleopods only developed on one side
uropods have grippers to hold on to columella

404
Q

Porcelain crab

A

Anomuran
carcinization
3 prs walking legs

405
Q

carcinization

A

anomurans that have converged body morphology with brachyuran crabs (reduced abdomen, carapace over cephalothorax)

406
Q

gill bailer

A

decapod elaboration of second pair of maxillae, aerate gills, moves in a wave-like fashion

407
Q

why do decapods need gill bailer

A

to clean out gill filaments - no motile cilia!!

408
Q

Caridea gill cleaning

A

chelate pereopods - reach in to gill chambers w/ delicate pinchers
(no chelopeds)

409
Q

Anomuran gill cleaning

A

5th pair of pereopods = little ‘stub’ on posterior dorsal end of carapace, insert in to gill chamber for cleaning, setose tip

410
Q

Brachyuran gill cleaning

A

3pr maxilliped epipods = elongate, setose, gill cleaning combs
extend back in to gill chambers
gill scrubbing whenever maxillipeds move

411
Q

Brachyuran, carbonized Anomurans

A

closed gilled chambers

lateral rim of branchiostagites fused to abdominal surface

412
Q

Anomuran tail fan

A

telson + 2pr biramous uropods

used along w/ abdominal muscles for movement = tail flip

413
Q

Tail flip, jump backwards

A

flexion of posterior abdomen segments - pulls body backwards

414
Q

Copepoda lifestyle, habitat

A

Pancrustacea
extremely abundant, diverse aquatic habitats - freshwater/marine- puddles, hot springs, enormous number of individuals, largest animal biomass on the planet, holopelagic, pelago-benthic, parasitic

415
Q

Copepod body size

A

1-2mm

416
Q

Copepod importance

A

transfer organic carbon from producers to higher trophic levels

417
Q

tail flip, jump up

A

flexion between abdomen and cephalothorax -bend middle of body – body move upwards

418
Q

Copepod body

A

torpedo-shaped
2 tagmata - head/thorax, abdomen
single medial eye

419
Q

copepod appendages

A 
1st pr antennae - sensory
2nd pr antennae- swimming
pr mandibles, 1st pr maxillae
2nd pr maxillae - food capture
1pr maxillipeds - assist feeding
4-5prs thoracic app. - hop swim
forked telson - 2 caudal rami
420
Q

distinctive copepod features

A

forked telson

421
Q

copepod swimming appendages

A

2nd pr antennae (biramous, bristled)

4-5prs thoracic appendage (hop swim) coupled together along median line

422
Q

copepod feeding appendages

A

2nd pr maxillae

1 pr maxillipeds

423
Q

Planktonic copepod environmental factors

A 
pull of gravity
depth-dependent light intensity
nowhere to hide
dilute resources
small Re #
424
Q

Maintaining position in water column, copepods

A

1st pr antennae long,bristled increase drag
2nd pr antennae- swim
store nutrients as lipid globules for buoyancy

425
Q

Reynolds number

A

describes viscous : inertial forces for characterizing behaviour of fluids flowing past an object

426
Q

Re =

A

(velocity x size x density) / viscosity

427
Q

Copepod feeding

A

flow lines disrupted by particle - 1st antennae detect disrupted flow while swimming on back- 2nd pr maxillae move apart rapidly - negative pressure, particle drawn in - close maxillae rapidly to capture particle

428
Q

Re dominated by

A

velocity, size

density/viscosity relatively unchanging within water column

429
Q

Re less than 10

A

flow lines move past object in orderly fashion, maintain trajectory, at low speed fluid dominated by viscous forces

430
Q

Re above 20,000

A

Turbulent flow
dominated by inertial forces
flow lines severely disrupted past object

431
Q

copepod swimming

A

very active movement, no gliding when movement stops

small size = low Re = viscosity dominant

432
Q

Why do copepods move maxillae rapidly to feed

A

to increase Re (increased velocity)

433
Q

boundary layer

A

non-moving fluid around object

low Re = thick boundary layer

434
Q

flow dominated by viscous forces

A

small Re

435
Q

how do copepod detect changes in flow lines

A

1st antennae covered in mechanoreceptors and setose bristles have thick boundary layer (paddle-like)

436
Q

Copepod evasion and escape

A 
transparent w/ few tissue pigments
loss of compound eyes (pigmented)
hop swim
diel vertical migration 
1st antennae sensory axons have myelin sheath
437
Q

copepod myelin sheath antennae

A

action potentials travel more rapidly if axon is enlarged (vertebrates), inverts use myelin sheath to speed potential

438
Q

Copepod mate finding

A

Pheromones

Behaviour patterns

439
Q

how copepod mating strategies work

A

male swim back and forth across top of column, fm swim up and down releasing pheromone, when pheromone detected m swims down

440
Q

thin boundary layer

A

large Re

441
Q

copepod reproduction

A

eggs brooded in egg sacs

nauplius larva

442
Q

parasitic copepod example

A

salmon louse
ectoparasite
huge, cling to external surface, feed on mucus/epidermis/ blood, detrimental to fish health

443
Q

giant parasitic copepod

A

family Pennellidae
ectoparasite of marine mammals
up to 30cm long

444
Q

Class Cirripedia

A

sessile in post-metamorphic stage (unique)
carapace as calcified plates
suspension feeding
free-living or symbiotic

445
Q

main Cirripedia groups

A

acorn barnacles

stalked (gooseneck) barnacles

446
Q

acorn barnacle

A

calcified cone directly attached to substrate

447
Q

stalked barnacle

A

calcified plate mounted on fleshy stalk

448
Q

Cirripedia morphology

A

opercular plates
wall plates
cirri

449
Q

Cirri

A

6 pairs thoracic appendages, biramous and setose, very small = low Re, feeding paddles

450
Q

flow dominated by inertial forces

A

Large Re

generate turbulent flow

451
Q

Gooseneck barnacle environment

A

high flow -incapable of sweeping cirri, can’t raise Re

passive feeding

452
Q

Gooseneck barnacle morphology

A

peduncle (stalk)
adhesive gland
ovary, gut, cecum, muscle, mouth, mantle cavity, cirri

453
Q

Cirripedia moulting

A

partial moult, only exoskeleton of cirri

454
Q

Cirripedia growth

A

CaCO3 added to basal rim and up sides - grow in diameter, height

455
Q

barnacle reproduction

A

most hermaphroditic
very long penis
gregarious settlement, metamorphosis

456
Q

gregarious settlement

A

larval stage attracted to settle near other members of the species - need to be nearby each other

457
Q

benefit of hermaphroditism in barnacles

A

as long as there is neighbour fertilization can take place

458
Q

barnacle life cycle

A

Nauplius larvae - cyprid larva

459
Q

Cyprid larva

A

2nd larval stage, non-feeding, must find suitable settling place, crawl around on rocks w/ 1st pr antennae

460
Q

symbiotic barnacles

A

commensal

parasitic

461
Q

commensal barnacles

A

dwarf, complemental males in some species
when density low
settle out of copulation range

462
Q

barnacle on crab under anemone

A

decorator crab with anemone on top to protect itself against cephalopods - barnacle reaches up and rips off anemone tentacles

463
Q

Rhizocephalan barnacle

A

endoparasite of decapod malacostracan
highly derived adult morphology
manipulation of hosts behaviour

464
Q

Rhizocephalan life cycle

A

dioecious - naplius metamorphoses to cyprid - fm swim around looking for decapod - settle - slice hole- insert cells - grow in to series of branched root-like structures that invade all tissues of host (interna) -derive nutrients from host - break through as mass of tissue to exterior (externa) - ‘mate’

465
Q

Rhizocephalan mating

A

fm forms externa, male cyprid finds externa, metamorphosis into dwarf male - essentially a sperm sac

466
Q

where does externa go

A

breaks out where egg mass would normally be, alters hosts behaviour to treat it like eggs (aerate, clean) - even male hosts!

467
Q

Phylum Echinodermata major characteristics

A 
'spiny skin'
Deuterostome
Eucoelomate 
WVS
calcareous endoskeleton
pentamerous radial symmetry
mutable collagenous tissue
468
Q

Echinoderm body compartments

A

coelom
endoderm derived mesoderm
3 sets of compartments formed in development

469
Q

Echinoderm coelom development

A

enterocoely

470
Q

WVS

A

water vascular system
coelomic compartments
operates tube feet

471
Q

tube feet

A

highly flexible, muscular, tubes filled d w/ fluid, moved by hydrostatic mechanism, unique

472
Q

pentamerous radial symmetry

A

pentaradial
at least in adult stage
bilateral + 5 point
bilateral in juvenile stage

473
Q

mutable collagenous tissue

A

connective tissues that can change response to tension between extensible and rigid, under control of nervous system

474
Q

Echinoderm skeleton

A 
calcareous endoskeleton
spines are skeleton covered w/ living tissue 
secreted by embryonic mesoderm
ossicles 
microporosity
475
Q

do all echinoderms have mutable collagenous tissue

A

yes, but not all collagenous tissues are mutable

476
Q

normal connective tissues

A

lots of collagen fibres

form in keeping things together (skin to muscle) - generally not active

477
Q

Echinoderm subphylum

A

Crinozoa
Asterozoa
Echinozoa

478
Q

Crinozoa groups

A

Class Crinoidea

479
Q

Asterozoa groups

A

Class Stelleroidea - Subclasses Asteroidea, Ophiuroidea

480
Q

Echinozoa groups

A

Classes Echinoidea, Holothuroidea

481
Q

Asteroidea

A

sea stars, mostly predatory

spines, disk, ambulacra, madreporite, arms, ossicles, pedicellariae

482
Q

ambulacra

A

where tube feet extend to environment (oral surface)

483
Q

Asteroid endoskeleton

A

latticework of interconnected ossicles, laced together w/ collagen fibres
spines

484
Q

Asteroid pedicellariae

A

2 jaws formed by specialized ossicles

cleaning, removing settlers

485
Q

Pedicellariae morphology

A

epidermis
2 jaw ossicles
basal ossicle
attached by opener/closer muscles

486
Q

Echinoderm canals

A 
fluid-filled tubes 
ring canal around esophagus/ mouth
radial canal down arm
lateral canals out from radial to tube feet
stone canal - from ring to madreporite
487
Q

movement of tube foot

A

close valve - contact muscle surrounding ampulla- force water down in to tube foot- foot extended - reach out- contract tube foot muscles to bend

488
Q

tube feet are like

A

flexible pipettes

489
Q

polian vessicle

A

filled with fluid

fluid reservoir

490
Q

stone canal

A

reaches up to specialized ossicle (madreporite)

491
Q

madreporite

A

very coarse ossicle

replenish fluid in WVS by taking in sea water

492
Q

Tiedmann’s body

A

manufactures phagocytes to phagocitize invading particles that come in madreporite

493
Q

Echinoderm coelomic compartments

A

WVS
perivisceral coelom
perihaemal coelom
genital coelom

494
Q

Echinoderm nervous system

A

ring nerve + 5 radial nerves
intra-epithelial
no centralization
same organization as WVS

495
Q

sea star feeding

A

tube feet pry open shell- evert cardiac stomach- digest and ingest

496
Q

specialized echinoderm ossicles

A

madreporite
spines
pedicellariae

497
Q

Asteroid reproduction

A

Asexual - fission and regeneration, autotomy
Sexual
planktonic, feeding larva
catastrophic metamorphosis

498
Q

Asteroid fission

A

central disk breaks in two then regenerates missing parts

499
Q

Asteroid autotomy

A

arm is shed and lives independently as a ‘comet’, eventually regenerating missing parts

500
Q

Asteroid sexual reproduction

A

dioecious
broadcast spawn
external fertilization

501
Q

respiratory out foldings of sea star body

A

papulae

502
Q

‘no arm’ Echinoderms

A

Echinozoa (Echinoidea, Holothuroidea)

503
Q

Echionoidea

A

no arms
endoskeleton
aristotles lantern

504
Q

echinoidea endoskeleton

A

flat ossicles that fit tightly together
5 ambulacral plates, 5 interambulacral areas, 2 rows of plates in each
spines, stalked pedicellaria

505
Q

ambulacral plates, echinoidea

A

2 rows of double pores for tube feet

506
Q

sea urchin spines

A

attach via ball-and-socket joints, moved by muscles, function in bracing, manipulating food, defense, may extrude toxin

507
Q

Echinoid pedicellaria

A

stalked
calcareous support rods
three opposing jaws

508
Q

Aristotles Lantern

A

complex system of ossicles and muscles surrounding esophagus
teeth can be protruded from mouth and moved in various directions to eat or scrape

509
Q

regular echinoids

A

sea urchin
radial symmetry
rocky substrates

510
Q

irregular echinoid symmetry

A

superimposed bilateral symmetry

e.g. sand dollar

511
Q

regular echinoid locomotion

A

spines and tube feet

512
Q

regular echinoid feeding

A

scarpe algae from rocks
shred kelp
capture drift algae with tube feet

513
Q

Irregular echinoids

A

sand/mud substrate
locomotion by spines only
deposit feeding (tube feet)

514
Q

Irregular echinoid respiration

A

petaloid tube feet specialized for gas exchange

515
Q

Holothuroidea body

A

no arms
elongation along oral-aboral axis
bilateral symmetry

516
Q

Holothuroidea endoskeleton

A

microscopic ossicles

not connected flexible, muscular body wall

517
Q

Holothuroidea WVS

A

5 ambulacra
buccal podia
suspension/deposit feeding
internal madreporites

518
Q

Holothuroid ambulacra

A

bivium (‘dorsal’)

trivium (‘ventral’)

519
Q

buccal podia

A

circle of 10-30 tentacles around mouth, may be same
size, or some dwarfed, may be branched (dendritic / arborescent), may be pinnate, peltate or digitate, retractile and the body wall can close over them

520
Q

cuvierian tubules

A

toxic structures attached to left respiratory tree, used for discouraging and entangling potential predators

521
Q

evisceration

A

expelling internal organs, cuvierian tubules or entire digestive system, respiratory trees, and gonads; liquify and rupture connective tissue attaching viscera to inner body wall, eventually regenerated

522
Q

Holothuroidea distinctive characteristics

A 
sausage shape
microscopic ossicles
muscular body wall
spacious perivisceeral coelom
buccal podia for feeding
respiratory trees
523
Q

ophiuroid suspension feeding

A

bury central disk and stick arms up (kind of looks like whip coral)

524
Q

Basket star

A

ophiuroid w/ branched arms - suspension feeding, coil around prey (zooplankton)

525
Q

bursal slit

A

narrow slit along inner arms of Ophiuroids, leading into large thin-walled sac (the bursa) which has a respiratory function

526
Q

Ophiuroidea characteristics

A 
central disk w/ highly flexible arms
locomotion by arm rowing
arm autotomy (MCT)
no anus
tube feet lack suckers and ampullae
bursa for gas exchange
527
Q

MCT

A

mutable collagenous tissue

soften body wall before autotomy

528
Q

brittle star respiration

A

cilia-lined sacs called bursae; each opens between the arm bases on the underside of the disk

529
Q

Crinoidea

A

‘sea lily’, ‘feather star’
arms with pinnules and podia
stalk or cirri

530
Q

Crinoidea feeding

A

suspension feeding w/ pinnule podia

531
Q

Crinoid endoskeleton

A

disc or vertebrate-shaped ossicle

allow long term extension of arms

532
Q

crinoids as representatives of primitive echinoderm state

A

body orientation - mouth up
endoskeleton -articulating discs
WVS for suspension feeding (not locomotion)
MCT for long-term maintenance of posture w/ no E expenditure

533
Q

Deuterostomia phylogeny

A

[Echinodermata s.g. Hemichordata]
s.g.
Chordata (Cephalochordate s.g. Urochordata s.g. Craniate)

534
Q

Chordates

A

perforated pharynx
notochord
dorsal hollow nerve cord
muscular post-anal tail

535
Q

Subphylum Urochordata groups

A

Class Ascidiacea
Class Larvacea
Class Thaliacea

536
Q

Urochordata characteristcs

A

also Tunicata
Tunic
no metamerism
eucoelom as pericardium

537
Q

tunic

A

tunicin cellulose-like fibrous material

538
Q

Class Ascidiacea

A

sea squirts
sessile suspension feeders
solitary and colonial forms

539
Q

Ascidian tunic

A

epidermis secreted tunicin + protein
hemal channels w/ wandering blood cells
spicules, fibrous material

540
Q

branchial basket

A

cartilaginous structure supporting the gills in protochordates and lower vertebrates
buccal siphon, atrial siphon
w/ pharyngeal mucus net to catch particles that go through perforated pharynx

541
Q

colonial ascidians

A

zooids interconnected by stolons
zooids rise from basal mat of shared tunic
zooids entirely embedded in shared tunic

542
Q

Didemnum sp.

A

invasive species of colonial tunicate, aggressive space competitior

543
Q

Ecteinascidia turbinata

A

Ascidian, source of anti-cancer drug ‘yondelis’ - PharmaMar, now synthetically manufactured

544
Q

Ascidian reproduction

A

hermaphroditic
broadcast spawn
eggs w/ self/non-self recognition
tadpole larva

545
Q

Ascidian larva

A 
tadpole
short-lived, non-feeding
tail w/ notochord, dorsal hollow nerve chord, muscles
adhesive papillae
start of branchial basket
546
Q

Ascidian metamorphosis

A

tadpole attaches to substrate w/ adhesive papillae (anterior end)
retraction of tail (apoptosis)
90º rotation of viscera

547
Q

viscera

A

internal organs in the main cavities of the body, especially those in the abdomen

548
Q

Class Larvacea

A

planktonic, 1-2mm
disposable gelatinous house
pharynx w/ 2 stigmata, mouth, anus, gut all in ‘head’
tail w/ notochord and dorsal hollow nerve chord

549
Q

larvacean house

A 
secreted by epidermal epithelium (4-8/day)
blown up by tail thrashing 
captures food particles
escape opening
pre-filters
food-concentrating filters
animal (mouth, tail)
excurrent opening
550
Q

Heterochrony

A

evolutionary change in time of appearance or rate of development of a character relative to other characters
e.g. somatic tissues vs reproductive tissues

551
Q

Heterochrony example

A

somatic tissue arrested development, reproductive tissue development = sexually mature ‘juvenile’
possibly why larvacean looks similar to Ascidian tadpole

552
Q

Heterochrony results

A

paedomorphosis

peramorphosis

553
Q

paedomorphosis

A

adult of a descendant is similar in appearance to the juvenile (larva) of its ancestor

554
Q

Class Thaliacea

A

pelagic, colonial (at least some stages)
pharyngeal cilia for swimming and feeding
individuals resemble adults ascidians

555
Q

Thaliacea colony

A

pyrosomes, up to 10+m long
hollow pelagic tubes, closed at one end, walls contain many zooids
communal tunic
bioluminescent

556
Q

individual Thaliacea zooid

A

perforated pharynx, siphons, like mini ascidian

exhaling water released into lumen of colony - expelled out colony aperture - propels colony along

557
Q

thaliacea colony communication

A

no interconnected neurons but coordinated movements

chain rxn - organism hits something - flashes- neighbour detects w/ photoreceptor - flashes - propagate message

558
Q

Phylum Hemichordata group

A

Class Enteropneusta

Also Class Pterobranchia but not for our purposes

559
Q

Class Enteropneusta

A

Acorn worm (anterior looks like acorn)
live in soft sediment
secrete a lot of mucus
eucoelomate

560
Q

Enteropneusta body

A

tripartite: proboscis, collar, trunk

tricoelomic (enterocoely similar to echinoderm)

561
Q

Enteropneust burrowing

A

peristaltic muscular contractions of proboscis
proboscis w/ cilia, mucus - pick up particles and carry posteriorly to move sed out of way - start burrowing motion- muscularly continue burrowing

562
Q

Enteropneust feeding

A

crawl up burrow to surface, lay proboscis on surface, cilia ensnare particles, carry to mouth
back up to surface to release fecal casting

563
Q

Acorn worm respiration

A

2 sets of perforations in external body wall = gill pores, perforated pharynx in dorsal region
ingested water travels out branchial pores and then external gill pores

564
Q

Acorn worm nervous system

A

D and V intraepithelial nerve cords (like sea star)
intra-epithelial nerve plexus (nerve tails run out to all parts of body)
hollow dorsal nerve cord in collar

565
Q

Enteropneust movement due to

A

ciliary activity and muscular contractions

566
Q

juvenile (larva) of a descendant is similar to the adult of its ancestor

A

Peramorphosis

567
Q

Acorn worm dorsal hollow nerve cord?

A

short region in collar

intraepithelial nerve cord sinks down and pinches off to become a d.h.n.c.

568
Q

Enteropneust reproduction

A

dioecious
larva morphologically similar to holothurian
broadcast spawn
ciliated larval stage may feed for months

569
Q

Hemichordate echinoderm-like characters

A 
larval morphology (similar to some groups, holothurians)
intraepithelial nerve system (found in sea stars and trunk region of hemichordates)
570
Q

Hemichordate chordate-like characters

A

pharyngeal perforations

dorsal hollow nerve cord (collar)

571
Q

Ctenophora

A 
mostly planktonic, swim but not strong enough to resist current
all marine and carnivorous 
100-150spp., but large individual #'s
mm - 1.5m
often translucent
572
Q

Ctenophora body

A

gelatinous - highly hydrated mesoglea (similar to cnidaria)
tentacles
comb rows/plates
mouth up - pharynx - stomach - anal pores
gastrovascular canals

573
Q

Ctenophore tentacles

A

2, originate from pits (pentacular sheaths), can be retracted, have side branches (tentilla) loaded w/ collocytes

574
Q

Ctenophore comb plates

A

8 rows of comb plates (ctenes), used for swimming, extend from oral surface down

575
Q

ctenes

A

large ciliary structures known
thousands of cilia in a row = plate
move in unison, out of stroke down comb row - wave propagates down comb row
cilia connected by interciliary links

576
Q

ctenophore cilia

A

up to 2mm

largest animals that locomotive by cilia

577
Q

ctenophore movement

A

effective stroke is towards aboral end
move through water column with mouth leading
beat frequency can slow and switch directions

578
Q

Collocytes

A 
release sticky adhesive
single use only
differentiate from interstitial cells 
complex, used to capture prey 
head covered in intercellular granules
straight filament = elongate nucleus
579
Q

Ctenophore muscles

A

myoepithelial cells in epidermis

bona fide muscle cells within ‘mesoglea’

580
Q

presence of stand-alone muscle cells in ctenophores

A

MAY suggest that ctenophores are true mesodermal animals and therefore triploblastic (no evidence)

581
Q

ctenophore nervous system

A

nerve net in epidermis and mesoglea

aboral (apical) sensory organ (rudimentary brain)

582
Q

ctenophore aboral sensory organ

A 
mostly statocyst (gravity sensor)
transparent CaCO3 dome over statolith on 4 balancers
583
Q

statolith balancers (ctenophore)

A

bundles of hundreds of cilia

tracks bifurcate away from dome

584
Q

how ctenophore apical sensory organ works

A

turn - statolith moves - pressure on 1+ balancer = signal down comb row = more rapid beating of cilia to make that side move up and straighten out
detect direction of gravity to know which way is up

585
Q

Pleurobrachia feeding

A

prey captured w/ sticky collocates on tentilla
tentacle retracts
ctenophore spins to waft tentacle over mouth

586
Q

Ctenophore defense

A

possibly cnidocyte stealer

feed on hydromedusa tentacles, place cnidocytes in ctenophore tentacles (observed in rare species)

587
Q

Cestum spp.

A

Venus’ Girdle

long, thin, flat, ctenophore

588
Q

Mnemiopsis

A

lobate ctenophore
invasive species, invaded black sea, no natural predator, more weight than annual world fish catch
capture prey w/ muscular oral lobes

589
Q

Beroë

A

‘swimming mouth’, no tentacles, feeds on other ctenophores, introduced to bring down population of mnemiopsis

590
Q

Beroë teeth

A

macrociliary teeth around margins of mouth, prevent prey from escaping, formed of cilia

591
Q

Benthic ctenophores

A

look like flatworms

lack comb rows in adult stage

592
Q

ctenophore reproduction

A

asexual - benthic ctenophore only
sexual - simultaneous hermaphrodites
-gametes from gastrodermis
-cydippid larva (look like pleurobrachia)

593
Q

Bryozoan main characteristics

A

sessile, colonial, lophophore, defense strategies, polymorphic colonies

594
Q

example of bryozoan heterozoid

A

Avicularium

595
Q

Molluscan phylogeny

A

Conchifera (Cephalopoda, Scaphopoda, Bivalvia, Gastropoda)

Acquifera (Polyplacophora, Chaetodermomorpha, Neomeniomorpha)

596
Q

largest class of Molluscs

A

Gastropoda

597
Q

type of shell with mantle cavity over head

A

endogastric shell

representative of torsion

598
Q

shell perforations =

A

2 ctenidia (left, right)

599
Q

largest gastropod group

A

Caenogastropoda (predatory, use proboscis)

600
Q

Cone snail toxin gland homologous to

A

mid-esophageal gland in other gastropods

601
Q

bivalve ctenidia modification

A

adapted for suspension feeding

602
Q

shell with mantle cavity at posterior end

A

exogastric shell

603
Q

Nematode secondary body compartment

A

pseudocoel

604
Q

Arthropod subphyla

A

Chelicerata

Mandibulata

605
Q

Chelicerata groups

A

Merostomata (horseshoe crabs)
Arachnida
Pycnogonida (sea spiders)

606
Q

Mandibulata groups

A

Pancrustacea

Myriapoda (centipede, millipede)

607
Q

Pancrustacea groups

A

Hexapoda
Malacostraca
Copepoda
Cirripedia

608
Q

Malacostraca groups

A

Euphausiacea
Stomatopoda
Pericardia
Decapoda

609
Q

Decapoda groups

A

Caridea
Astacidea
Anomura
Brachyura

610
Q

Merostomata appendages

A

1st appendages = chelicera, feeding

2nd appendages = pedipalps, variety of fn, not very derived

611
Q

Insect tagmata

A

head
thorax
abdomen

612
Q

Holometabolous development

A

complete reorganization of body

613
Q

‘Whip’ heterozooid

A

Vibraculum

2016/2017 (15 decks)

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