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A&P II > Endocrine System > Flashcards

Endocrine System Flashcards

1
Q

Endocrine System in homeostasis

A
  • Hormones released into the bloodstream travel throughout the body
  • results may take hours but the effects last longer
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2
Q

Nervous System in homeostasis

A
  • Release neurotransmitters locally to excite or inhibit nerve, muscle and gland cells
  • Results appear in milliseconds but only brief duration of effects
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3
Q

Exocrine Glands

A

( exit the body, exo)

  • Secrete their products into ducts that carry the secretions into body cavities or body surface
  • Include sweat, oil mucus, and digestive glands
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4
Q

Endocrine Glands

A

(enters body, endo)

  • Secret ( hormones) into interstitial fluid surrounding the cell instead of into ducts
  • Includes pituitary, pineal glands thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal
  • not endocrine but secrete hormones: Hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas, ovaries, testes, kidneys, stomach, liver, small intestine, skin, heart, and placenta
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5
Q

General functions of hormones

A

Help regulate:

  • extracellular fluid
  • metabolism
  • biological clock
  • contraction of cardiac and smooth muscle
  • glandular secretion
  • some immune functions
  • growth and development
  • reproduction
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6
Q

The role of hormone receptors

A
  • Hormones attach/bind to ONLY their receptors
  • like little flags that bind only to their specific hormone, will not bind to any other receptors besides their cells receptors
  • Constantly being synthesized and broken down in response to hormone levels or effect
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7
Q

Circulating Hormones

A
  • Most endocrine are circulating hormones
    Use blood as a highway
  • act on distant targets
  • travel and linger in the blood
    Linger in the body and effects last minutes to hours
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8
Q

Local Hormones

A

Act locally on neighboring cells or same cell that secreted them without entering the bloodstream
two types
- paracrines and autocrines
Inactivated quickly

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9
Q

Chemical class of hormones

A

Soluble in lipids and soluble in water

Solubility affects the drug delivery, mechanism of action, and need for transport proteins

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10
Q

Liquid- soluble hormones

A

Most bind to transport proteins to be carried in blood
this makes them temporarily water soluble, this increases their solubility in blood
-Has carbon rings
-usually end in -one or -ol
Steroids: Aldosterone, androgens, calcitriol, cortisol, estrogens,proestrogene testosterone
Thyroid: T3 and T4
Nitric oxide: NO gas

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11
Q

Water-soluble hormones

A

Most circulate in plasma in a free unattached form
Amine hormones:
Peptide and Protein
Eicosanoids

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12
Q

Hormone transporting the blood

A

water-soluble hormones circulate in watery blood plasma.

Lipid- soluble hormones ( steroids and thyroid) must attach to transport proteins synthesized by the liver

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13
Q

What are the general mechanisms of hormone action

A

Hormones bind to cell surface or receptors inside target cell
Cells then:
-synthesize new molecules
-change permeability of membrane
-alter rates of reactions
Each target cell responds to hormones differently

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14
Q

Actions of lipid soluble hormones

Steps

A
  • Diffuse through membrane
  • Bind to the receptor( that is inside of target cells) in cytosol/nucleus turning on/off specific genes, aka alters gene expression
  • forms new RNA that directs synthesis of new proteins
  • New protein alters cells activity and causes response
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15
Q

Action of water soluble hormones

steps

A
  • Can’t diffuse through plasma membrane
  • the hormone acts as the first messenger
  • Receptor proteins activate g-protein “gets the ball rolling”
  • g-protien activates adenylate cyclase to convert atp to cAMP (energy)
  • cAMP now the second messenger, activates kinases in the cytosol to speed up/slow down physiological responses
  • Phosphodiesterase inactivates cAMP quickly and the cell response is turned off unless new hormone molecules arrive
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16
Q

Permissive effect

A

A second hormone strengthens the effects of the first

you pushing a wall and someone coming to push it too

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17
Q

Synergistic effect

A

Two hormones acting together for greater effect

working together

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18
Q

Antagonistic effects

A

Two hormones with opposite effects

one turns something off the other turns it off, one enhances the other decreases the action

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19
Q

Negative feedback control

A

Most common

Change is reversed, restoring homeostasis

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20
Q

Positive feedback control

A

The change produced by the hormone causes more hormone to be released

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21
Q

Hypothalamus

A
  • master endocrine gland, the puppeteer
  • located in the brain above the pituitary gland and controls it
  • It’s hormones control other endocrine glands
  • Involved in behavior (rage, hunger, thirst, fear, sex)
  • Controls all aspects of growth, development, metabolism, and homeostasis
  • Receives input from the cerebral cortex, thalamus, limbic system, and internal organs
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22
Q

Hypothalamus role with Pituitary Gland

A
  • Controls pituitary gland
  • synthesizes 9 different hormones
  • All hormones act on anterior pituitary EXCEPT the posterior pituitary hormones
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23
Q

What 9 hormones does the hypothalamus synthesize in the pituitary

  • Posterior pituitary
  • releasing
  • inhibiting
A

posterior: OT and ADH: Stored and released from posterior pituitary
releasing: GHRH, TRH, GnRH, PRH, CRH: Control release of hormones by the anterior pituitary
inhibiting: GHIH and PIH: inhibit the release of hormones by the anterior pituitary

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24
Q

Pituitary Gland

A
  • Pea shaped
  • In sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
  • Has 2 lobes, anterior and posterior
  • Secretes several hormones that control other endocrine glands
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25
Q

How does blood flow to the Anterior Pituitary

A
  • The controlling hormones enter the blood, RH and IH
  • They travel through portal veins
  • Enter the anterior pituitary at the capillaries
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26
Q

Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary gland and the cells that produce them

A
  • Human growth hormone secreted by somatrophs
  • Thyroid-stimulating hormone secreted by thyrothrops
  • Follicle-stimulating hormone & Luteinizing hormone secreted by gonadotrophs
  • Prolactin secreted by lactotrophs
  • Adrenocorticotropic hormone & Melanocyte-stimulating hormone secreted by corticotrophs
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27
Q

What is the human growth hormone

-common target cells

A

Increases the synthesis of insulin-like growth factors that are local or that enter the bloodstream

  • stimulate the breaking of fat used for ATP
  • Common target cells are the liver, skeletal muscle, cartilage and bone
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28
Q

Regulation of hGH

A
  • If the cell growth is too much:
    GHRH decreases and GHIh increases
    -If the cell growth is too slow:
    Increase GHRH
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29
Q

Steps of Excess of Growth hormone ( Diabetogenic )

A
  • raises blood glucose concentration
  • pancreas releases insulin continuously
  • results in pancreas getting tired of doing so, so beta-cell burnout occurs ( stops making insulin)
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30
Q

Diabetogenic effect

A

When beta-cell burnout occurs, insulin stops being created so this causes one to have diabetes Mellitus( type 2 ) due to no insulin activity.

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31
Q

Posterior Pituitary and 2 hormones

A
  • Smaller portions
  • Does NOT synthesize hormones but does store and release them
  • Consists of axon terminals of hypothalamic neurons
  • Relaesed by exocytosis
  • Store and relases only 2 hormones: Oxycotin (OT) and Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
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32
Q

Oxycotin (OT)

A
  • Two target tissues in pregnant women
  • Uterus and mammary glands
  • Enhances uterine muscle contraction during delivery
  • Causes muscle contraction and milk ejection after delivery
  • Regulated by positive feedback
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33
Q

Antidiuretic Hormone ( ADH)

A

-Known as vasopressin
-Functions include:
Stimulates water reabsorption by the kidneys
Decrease urine productions/volume & conserve water aka sweating
Increases BP by causing smooth muscle contraction in blood vessels

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34
Q

Regulation of ADH

A

Negative feedback

Dehydration, stress, pain, trauma, anxiety, Ach, Nicotine, Morphine, Overhydration, alcohol, caffeine

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35
Q

Thyroid gland Histology

A

Butterfly shaped
Above the larynx
4 Main parts
Colloid: The fluid inside of the cell
Follicular cells: surround the colloid, produce t3 and t4
Parafollicular cells: In between the follicular cells, produce calcitonin
Follice: The sac of stored hormone, (Overall cell)
Lined witht he follicular cells and is filled with colloid

36
Q

Formation of Thyroid Hormone T3 and T4

A
  • Make TGB in cell
  • Iodinize Colloid
  • Add Iodine to TGB to make t3 and t4
37
Q

Thyroid Hormones

A 
T3 and T4
- Responsible for increasing: 
Protein synthesis
lipolysis
metabolic rate
regulate oxygen use and basal metabolic rate, cellular metabolism, and growth and development
38
Q

Calcitonin ( CT ) & Secretion

A

Responsible for lowering blood levels of calcium and phosphates
builds bone
Secretion is controlled by calcium levels in the blood

39
Q

Parathyroid gland

A

Found on Posterior side of Thyroid
Has 2 main parts
Oxyphill cells: Surround the principal/chief cells
Principal/Chief cells: Produce PTH hormone, darker ones

40
Q

Parathyroid Hormone

A

Regulates homeostasis of calcium and phosphate by Increases blood calcium levels and decreasing blood phosphate level
Increases activity of osteoclasts
The opposite function of Calcitonin

41
Q

Adrenal Glands

A 
Superior to the kidneys
Pyramid shaped
2 Regions to it
-Adrenal cortex ( Outter part) 3 zones
-Adrenal Medulla (inner part) 
3 parts
-Capsule: Outter layer
-Cortex: Yellow second layer
-zona glo., fas., ret.
-Medulla: Inner layer ( the middle)
42
Q

Androgens

A

usually have minimal effects in the male but more pronounced effects in the female]
May contribute to sex drive, still unknown
Made in Zona Reticularis

43
Q

Adrenal Medulla

A

consists of hormone-producing cells, called chromaffin cells, which surround large blood-filled sinuses
Two major hormones
Epinephrine: Causes fight or flight behaviors
Norepinephrine: Stimulated by Ach

44
Q

Pancreas

A 
classified as both an endocrine and an exocrine gland Contains Pancreatic islets and 95% made up of acini cells 
4 hormones
-Insulin
-Glucogon
-Somatistatin
Pancreaticpelipeptide
45
Q

Thymus

A

Located behind the sternum between the lungs

46
Q

Stress response

A

Eustress and Distress
3 stages:
initial flight or fight, slower resistance reaction and eventually exhaustion

47
Q

What is a hormone

A

A molecule that is released in one part of the body but regulates the activity of cells in other parts of the body2

48
Q

What does the Endocrone system do

A

Controls body activities by releasing hormones

49
Q

Down regulation

A

if there is enough hormone present in the cell then the number of receptors decrease

50
Q

Up regulation

A

If the hormone is deficient, the number of receptors will increase

51
Q

Two types of local hormones

A

Paracrine: Act on neighboring cells (insulin )
Autocrine: Act on the same cell that secreted them are inactivated quickly (cells in the immune system)

52
Q

Steroid Hormones

A

Lipid Soluble

Derived from cholesterol. Each is unique

53
Q

Thyroid Hormones

A

Lipid soluble
T3 and T4
Synthesized by attaching iodine to the amino acid tyrosine

54
Q

Nitric Oxide

A

Lipid Soluble

Both a hormone and a neurotransmitter.

55
Q

Amine Hormones

A

Water soluble

serotonin, melatonin, histamine,epinephrine, norepinephrine

56
Q

Peptide and Protien hormones

A

Water soluble
Amino Acid polymers
hypothalamic RH and IH

57
Q

Eicosanoid Hormones

A

Water soluble

Prostaglandins and leukotrienes

58
Q

Hormone Interactions

A

The responsiveness of a target cell to a hormone depends on the hormone’s concentration, the abundance of the target cell’s hormone receptors, and influences exerted by other hormones.
The three interactions are permissive,synergistic and antagonistic

59
Q

The control of hormone secretion

A

Release of hormones occur in short bursts, with little or no secretion between bursts.
The regulation normally prevents overproduction or underproduction of the given hormone to help maintain homeostasis

60
Q

Hormone secretion is regulated by

A

Signals from the nervous system, chemical changes in the blood and other hormones

61
Q

GH

A

Growth Hormone

Stimulates general body growth and regulates aspects of metabolism

62
Q

TSH

A

Thyroid Stimulating hormone
Regulated by TRH and GHIH from the hypothalamus
Controls the secretions and other activities of the thyroid gland

63
Q

FSH & LH

A

Follicle stimulating hormone Regulated by GnRH; no IH and Luteinizing hormone Regulated by GnRH; no IH
Both act on the gonads.
In men, they stimulate testes to produce sperm and secrete testosterone.
In women, they stimulate the ovaries to mature oocytes and to secrete estrogen and progesterone

64
Q

PRL

A

Prolactin
Regulated by PRH, TRH, PIH
Initiates the production of milk and mammary glands

65
Q

ACTH

A

Adrenocorticotropic
Regulated by CRH;no IH
Stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids such as cortisol

66
Q

MSH

A

Melanocyte Stimulating hormone
Regulated by CRH,PIH
increases skin pigmentation in frogs, unknown for humans

67
Q

What controls Thyroid Hormone Secretion

A

Controlled by the level of iodine in the thyroid gland and by negative feedback systems involving both the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary gland

68
Q

Control of Secretion of Calcitonin and Parathyroid Hormone

A

Blood calcium levels directly controls the secretion go both calcitonin and parathyroid hormone via negative feedback
PTH increases the number and activity of osteoclasts, increases the rate of Calcium ions and Mg+2 from reabsorption from urine and inhibits the reabsorption of HPO4-2 so more is secreted in the urine, and promotes formation of calcitriol, which increases the absorption of calcium ions, Mg+2,and HPO4-2 from the GI tract.

69
Q

Adrenal Cortex & hormones

A

has 3 zones
The zona glomerulosa (outer zone) secretes mineralocorticoids
The zona fasciculata (middle zone) secretes glucocorticoids.
The zona reticularis (inner zone) secretes androgens

70
Q

Adrenal Gland Hormones

A

Aldosterone: made in Zona Glomerulosa
increase sodium and water reabsorption and decrease potassium reabsorption, helping to regulate sodium and potassium levels in the body
Secretion is controlled by the renin-angiotensin pathway and blood level of potassium
Cortisol: Made in Zona Fasciculata
promote breakdown of proteins, formation of glucose, lipolysis, resistance to stress, anti-inflammatory effects, and depression of the immune response.
Secretion is controlled by CRH and ACTH from the anterior pituitary

71
Q

Pancreatic Islets & cell types

A

4 types
Alpha cells: constitute about 17% of islet cells. secrete glucagon which increases blood glucose levels.
Beta cells: Constitute about 70% of islet cells. secrete insulin which decreases blood glucose levels.
Delta cells: constitute about 7% of islet cells. secrete somatostatin, which acts as a paracrine to inhibit the secretion of insulin and glucagon.
F-cells: constitute the remainder of islet cells, secrete pancreatic polypeptide, which regulates release of pancreatic digestive enzymes.

72
Q

Ovaries

A

located in the pelvic cavity

produce several steroid hormones, including two sex hormones (estrogens and progesterone) and inhibin and relaxin.

73
Q

Estogen and Progesterone Hormone

A

Produced in ovaries
Regulate menstral cycle, maintain pregnancy, and prepare the mammary glands for lactation. Promote enlargement of breast and widening of the hips at puberty and help maintain female secondary characteristics

74
Q

Inhibin Hormone

A

Produced in ovaries

Protien hormone that inhibits the secretion of FSH.

75
Q

Relaxin Hormone

A

Produced in ovaries

Increases the flexibility of the pubic symphysis during pregnancy and helps dilute cervix for labor and delivery

76
Q

Testes

A

Oval glands that lie in the scrotum
Produce 2 main hormones
Testosterone and Androgen
and inhibin

77
Q

Testosteorne hormone

A

Stimulates the descent of the testes before birth, regulates the production of sperm and stimulates the development and maintenance of male secondary characteristics

78
Q

Pineal gland

A

attached to the roof of the third ventricle, inside the brain
Secrets melatonin

79
Q

Thymus Gland

A

Located being the sternum between the lungs
Has a large role in immunity so it secretes several hormones relating to immunity
Thymosin, thymic humoral-factor, thymic factor, and thymopoietin

80
Q

Thymus gland hormones

A

promote the proliferation and maturation of T cells, a type of white blood cell involved in immunity

81
Q

Eicosanoids

A

Two families
-prostaglandins
-leukotrienes
Found all over the body, except red blood cells, where they act as local hormones.
Synthesized by clipping a 20 carbon fatty acid
Prostaglandins have a wide range of biological activity in normal physiology and pathology

82
Q

Growth Factors

A

hormones that stimulate cell growth and division
Examples: epidermal growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, fibroblast growth factor, nerve growth factor, tumor angiogenesis factors, insulinlike growth factor, and cytokines

83
Q

Fight or flight Response

A

The alarm reaction is initiated by nerve impulses from the hypothalamus to the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system and adrenal medulla
increase circulation, promote catabolism for energy production, and decrease nonessential activity

84
Q

Resistance Reaction

A

initiated by regulating hormones secreted by the hypothalamus ( CRH,GHRH,TRH )
are long-term and accelerate catabolism to provide energy to counteract stress.

85
Q

Exhaustion

A

results from dramatic changes during alarm and resistance reactions
caused mainly by loss of potassium, depletion of adrenal glucocorticoids, and weakened organs. If stress is too great, it may lead to death

A&P II (14 decks)

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