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ANAPHY LECTURE > ENDOCRINE SYSTEM > Flashcards

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Flashcards

1
Q

primary regulators of the coordination of cell activities

A

Chemical messengers of nervous and endocrine system

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2
Q

allow cells to communicate with each other to regulate body activities

A

Chemical messengers

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3
Q

the controlled release of chemicals from a cell

A

secretion

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4
Q

stimulates the cell that originally secreted it

A

Autocrine chemical messengers (ex. Eicosanoids; those secreted by white blood cells during an infection)

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5
Q

(T/F) the total number of white blood cells increases rapidly

A

T - Several types of white blood cells can stimulate their own replication

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6
Q

act locally on neighboring cells that are secreted by one cell type into the extracellular fluid and affect surrounding cells

A

Paracrine chemical messengers (ex. histamine, Somatostatin, eicosanoids)

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7
Q

stimulates vasodilation in nearby blood vessels

A

histamine

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8
Q

widening of blood vessels as a result of the relaxation of the blood vessel’s muscular walls and a mechanism to enhance blood flow to areas of the body that are lacking oxygen and/or nutrients

A

Vasodilation

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9
Q

chemical messengers secreted by neurons that activate an adjacent cell, whether it is another neuron, a muscle cell, or a glandular cell

A

Neurotransmitters (ex. Acetylcholine, epinephrine)

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10
Q

secreted into the bloodstream by certain glands and
cells

A

Endocrine chemical messengers

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11
Q

composed of endocrine glands and specialized endocrine cells located throughout the body

A

endocrine system (ductless release)

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12
Q

very small amounts of chemical messengers

A

hormones

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13
Q

Hormones circulate through the bloodstream to specific
sites called?

A

target tissues, or effectors

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14
Q

endo in Greek means?

A

within

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15
Q

krino means?

A

to secrete

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16
Q

have ducts that carry their secretions to the outside
of the body, or into a hollow organ

A

Exocrine glands (ex. secretions of saliva, sweat, breast milk, and
digestive enzymes)

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17
Q

study of the endocrine system

A

endocrinology

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18
Q

neuron’s chemical messenger which enters the bloodstream where it functions as a hormone

A

neuropeptides, or neurohormones (ex. oxytocin)

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19
Q

hormones secreted by most endocrine glands can be described as

A

amplitude-modulated signals (concentration)

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20
Q

the all-or-none action potentials carried along axons can be described as

A

frequency-modulated signals (frequency)

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21
Q

hormon in Greek means?

A

set into motion

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22
Q

General Characteristics of Hormones (3)

A

Stability
Communication
Distribution

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23
Q

(T/F) Larger, more complex hormones are more stable

A

T

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24
Q

(T/F) simpler hormones are less stable

A

T

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25
Q

A hormone’s life span

A

half-life

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26
Q

amount of time it takes for 50% of the circulating hormone
to be removed from the circulation and excreted.

A

half-life

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27
Q

thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)

A

short half-life

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28
Q

cortisol

A

longer half-life

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29
Q

(T/F) Small, water- soluble hormones are quickly digested by hydrolytic enzymes in the blood and are easily filtered from the blood in the kidneys

A

T

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30
Q

(T/F) lipid-soluble hormones, have low solubility in the blood plasma

A

T

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31
Q

Hormones requiring a transport chaperone bind to blood proteins

A

binding proteins (protects water-soluble hormones from degradation by hydrolytic enzymes and from being filtered from the blood in the kidney; causes lipid-soluble hormones to become more water-soluble)

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32
Q

Once hormones attach to a binding protein, they are then called

A

bound hormones

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33
Q

(T/F) The binding of hormones to binding proteins is reversible

A

T

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34
Q

Once the hormones detach from the binding protein,
they are then called

A

free hormones

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35
Q

(T/F) Hormones that attach to binding proteins tend to have longer half-lives than hormones that do not require binding proteins

A

T

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36
Q

two chemical categories of hormones based on chemical behavior

A

lipid-soluble hormones
water-soluble hormones

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37
Q

nonpolar and include steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, and fatty acid derivative hormones, such as certain eicosanoids

A

Lipid-Soluble Hormones (ex. Steroids (all cholesterol-based)
Testosterone, aldosterone, thyroxine)

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38
Q

lipid-soluble hormones are removed from the
circulation when specific enzymes in the liver attach water-soluble molecules to the hormones,

A

conjugation

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39
Q

polar molecules: they include protein
hormones, peptide hormones, and most amino acid derivative
hormones

A

Water-Soluble Hormones (ex. Proteins, Insulin, Peptides, Amino Acid Derivatives; Epinephrine)

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40
Q

many of these circulate as free hormones

A

water-soluble hormones

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41
Q

The three main patterns of hormone secretion

A

chronic (constant; thyroid hormones)
acute (Irregular; epinephrine)
episodic (intervals; steroid reproductive hormones)

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42
Q

lipid-soluble hormones exhibit the two regular secretion patterns

A

(chronic and episodic)

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43
Q

water-soluble hormones tend to exhibit the secretion pattern __

A

acute (sometimes episodic)

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44
Q

Three types of stimuli regulate hormone release:

A

humoral stimuli (circulate in blood)
neural stimuli (neurotransmitters into synapses)
hormonal stimuli (hormones stimulate the secretion of other hormones)

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45
Q

a term usually reserved for hormones from the hypothalamus

A

releasing hormones

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45
Q

hormones from the anterior pituitary gland,

A

tropic hormones

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46
Q

Three types of stimuli regulate hormone inhibition:

A

humoral stimuli
neural stimuli
hormonal stimuli

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46
Q

hormones from the hypothalamus that prevent the
secretion of tropic hormones from the pituitary gland

A

inhibiting hormones

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46
Q

Two major mechanisms maintain hormone levels in the blood
within a homeostatic range:

A

negative feedback and positive feedback

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47
Q

the hormone’s secretion is inhibited by the hormone itself once blood levels have reached a certain point and there is adequate hormone to
activate the target cell.

A

Negative feedback (self-limiting system)

ex. thyroid hormones inhibit the
secretion of TRH from the hypothalamus and TSH from the
anterior pituitary

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48
Q

hormones promote the further synthesis and secretion of the tropic hormone in addition to stimulating their target cell.

A

Positive feedback (self-propagating system)

ex. prolonged estrogen stimulation
promotes a release of luteinizing hormone

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49
Q

target cell proteins

A

receptors

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50
Q

specific portion of each receptor molecule where a hormone bind is called

A

receptor site

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51
Q

tendency for each type of hormone to bind to one type
of receptor, and not to others

A

specificity

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52
Q

drug that binds to a hormone receptor and activates

A

agonist

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53
Q

A drug that binds to a hormone receptor and inhibits
its action

A

antagonist

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54
Q

Desensitization occurs when the number
of receptors rapidly decreases after exposure to certain hormones

A

down-regulation

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55
Q

results in an increase in the rate of receptor synthesis in the target cells,
which increases the total number of receptor molecules in a cell

A

Up-regulation

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56
Q

Classes of Receptors

A
  1. Lipid-soluble hormones bind to nuclear receptors.
  2. Water-soluble hormones bind to membrane-bound receptors.
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57
Q

proteins that extend
across the plasma membrane, with their hormone-binding sites
exposed on the plasma membrane’s outer surface

A

membrane-bound receptors

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58
Q

sequences in the DNA called

A

hormone- response elements

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59
Q

The combination of the hormone and its receptor forms
a

A

transcription factor

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60
Q

when the hormone-receptor
complex binds to the hormone-response element, it activates the
transcription of ___ which codes for proteins.

A

messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA)

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61
Q

Nuclear receptors have portions that allow them to bind to the DNA
in the nucleus once the hormone is bound:

A

The hormone-receptor complex activates genes, which in turn
activate the DNA to produce mRNA.

The mRNA increases the synthesis of certain proteins that produce
the target cell’s response.

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62
Q

(T/F) Nuclear receptors cannot respond immediately, because it takes time to produce the mRNA and the protein

A

T

63
Q

produced inside a cell once a hormone or another chemical messenger binds to certain membrane-bound receptors

A

intra cellular mediator

64
Q

an enzyme that converts ATP to cAMP

A

adenylate cyclase

65
Q

functions as a second messenger, an intracellular mediator that
carries out cellular metabolic processes in response to hormonal activation

A

Cyclic AMP

66
Q

enzymes that regulate the
activity of other enzymes by attaching phosphates to them, a
process called phosphorylation

A

protein kinase

67
Q

breaks down cAMP to AMP

A

phosphodiesterase

68
Q

Membrane-Bound Receptors and Signal
Amplification

A
  1. Membrane-bound receptors activate a cascade of events once the
    hormone binds.
  2. Some membrane-bound receptors are associated with membrane
    proteins called G proteins.
    ■ Hormone binds to a membrane-bound receptor, and G proteins are
    activated.
    ■ The α subunit of the G protein binds to ion channels and causes
    them to open or change the rate of synthesis of intracellular mediators,
    such as cAMP, cGMP, IP3, and DAG.
  3. Intracellular enzymes can be activated directly, which in turn causes
    the synthesis of intracellular mediators, such as cGMP, or adds a
    phosphate group to intracellular enzymes, which alters their activity.
  4. Second-messenger systems act rapidly, because they act on already
    existing enzymes to amplify the signal.
69
Q

FUNCTIONS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

A
  1. Regulation of metabolism
  2. Control of food intake and digestion
  3. Modulation of tissue development
  4. Regulation of ion levels
  5. Control of water balance
  6. Changes in heart rate and blood pressure
  7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients
  8. Control of reproductive functions
  9. Stimulation of uterine contractions and milk release
  10. Modulation of immune system function. The endocrine system
    helps control the production of immune cells
70
Q

secretes nine major hormones that regulate numerous body functions and the secretory activity of several other endocrine glands.

A

pituitary gland

71
Q

regulates the secretory activity of the pituitary gland in
response to other hormones, sensory information, and emotions.

A

hypothalamus

72
Q

connected to the base of the brain, just inferior to the hypothalamus; rests in the sella turcica (depression) of the sphenoid bone and is roughly the size of a pea

A

pituitary gland

73
Q

stalk of tissue that connects the pituitary gland to the
hypothalamus

A

infundibulum

74
Q

The pituitary gland is divided into which two lobes?

A

posterior pituitary gland, or neurohypophysis
anterior pituitary gland, or adenohypophysis

75
Q

is called the neurohypophysis because it is
continuous with the hypothalamus in the brain

A

posterior pituitary (neural tissues)

76
Q

Because the posterior pituitary is a part of the nervous system, its hormones are called?

A

neuropeptides, or neurohormones

77
Q

develops as an outpocketing of the roof of
the embryonic oral cavity called the pituitary diverticulum, or
Rathke pouch

A

anterior pituitary (epithelial tissues)

78
Q

not functional in adult humans

A

pars intermedia

79
Q

a circulatory system

A

portal systrem

80
Q

a circulatory system

A

portal system

81
Q

one of the major portal systems in the body

A

hypothalamohypophysial portal system

82
Q

provides a means by which the hypothalamus, using
neurohormones as chemical messengers, regulates the secretory
activity of the anterior pituitary

A

hypothalamohypophysial portal system

82
Q

HORMONES OF HYPOTHALAMUS (8)

A

Growth hormone–releasing
hormone (GHRH)

Growth hormone–inhibiting
hormone (GHIH), or somatostatin

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)

Corticotropin-releasing hormone
(CRH)

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH)

Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH)

Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH)

83
Q

HORMONES OF POSTERIOR PITUITARY (2)

A

Antidiuretic Hormone (vasopressin)- a water conservation hormone that also constricts blood vessels and raises blood pressure when large
amounts are released

Oxytocin - an important reproductive hormone; increased uterine contractions; increased milk expulsion from mammary glands; unclear function in males

84
Q

HORMONES OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY (6)

A

Growth hormone (GH), or somatotropin - Increased growth in tissues; increased amino acid uptake and protein synthesis; increased breakdown of lipids and release of fatty acids from cells; increased glycogen synthesis and increased blood glucose levels; increased somatomedin production

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) - Increased thyroid hormone secretion

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - Increased glucocorticoid hormone secretion

Luteinizing hormone (LH) - Ovulation and progesterone production in ovaries; testosterone synthesis and support for sperm cell production in testes

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) - Follicle maturation and estrogen secretion in ovaries; sperm cell production in testes

Prolactin - Milk production in lactating women; increased response of follicle to LH and FSH; unclear function in males

85
Q

Increased lipid breakdown

A

Lipotropins

86
Q

Analgesia in the brain; inhibition of gonadotropin-releasing
hormone secretion

A

β endorphins

87
Q

Chronic hyposecretion, or insufficient secretion, of GH in
infants and children lead to a condition called

A

pituitary dwarfism

88
Q

There are two types of pituitary dwarfism:

A

(1) GH and other anterior pituitary hormones are
secreted in reduced amounts (additional disorders; 2/3)

(2) GH secretion is reduced, and the secretion of other anterior pituitary hormones is closer to normal (no additional; 1/3)

89
Q

Chronic hypersecretion of GH before the epiphyseal plates
have ossified causes exaggerated and prolonged growth in long bones,
a condition called

A

gigantism (childhood)

90
Q

In adults, chronically elevated GH levels result in

A

acromegaly (No height increase occurs because the epiphyseal
plates have ossified)

91
Q

binds to membrane-bound receptors on skin melanocytes and stimulates
increased melanin deposition in the skin.

A

Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

92
Q

are glycoprotein hormones capable of promoting the growth and function of the gonads, the ovaries and testes.

A

Gonadotropins

93
Q

composed of two lobes connected by a narrow band of thyroid
tissue called the isthmus and is one of the largest endocrine glands

A

thyroid gland

94
Q

small spheres whose walls are composed of a single layer of
cuboidal epithelial cells

A

follicles

95
Q

The center of each
thyroid follicle is filled with a gelatinous material called

A

colloid (composed of a highly concentrated protein called
thyroglobulin)

96
Q

stores a huge amount of thyroid hormones (Storage of such a large amount of hormone is unique to the thyroid gland.)

A

thyroglobulin

97
Q

secretes calcitonin

A

parafollicular cells

98
Q

plays a role in reducing
the concentration of calcium in the body fluids when calcium
levels become elevated

A

calcitonin

99
Q

THYROID HORMONES (2)

A

triiodothyronine or T3 (10%) & tetraiodothyronine or T4/thyroxine (80%) - Increased metabolic rate; increased protein synthesis; essential for normal growth and maturation

Calcitonin (10%) - Decreased rate of breakdown of bone by osteoclasts; prevention of a large increase in blood Ca2+ levels

100
Q

should be consumed by humans to support thyroid hormone synthesis

A

iodine

101
Q

Causes inadequate T3 and T4 synthesis, which results in elevated thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion

A

Iodine deficiency

102
Q

Inhibit T3 and T4 synthesis; found in certain drugs and in small amounts in certain plants, such as cabbage

A

Goitrogenic (goiter-causing) substances

103
Q

Caused by maternal iodine deficiency or congenital errors in thyroid hormone synthesis

A

Neonatal hypothyroidism

104
Q

Results from lack of TSH secretion

A

Pituitary insufficiency

105
Q

Autoimmune disease in which thyroid hormone secretion can be normal or depressed

A

Hashimoto disease

106
Q

Partial or complete surgical removal or drug-induced destruction of the thyroid gland as a treatment for Graves
disease (hyperthyroidism)

A

Lack of thyroid gland

107
Q

Characterized by goiter and exophthalmos

A

Graves disease

108
Q

Result in either normal secretion or hypersecretion of thyroid hormones (rarely hyposecretion)

A

Tumors—benign adenoma or cancer

109
Q

Produces painful swelling of the thyroid gland with normal or slightly increased T3 and T4 production

A

Thyroiditis—a viral infection

110
Q

Thyroid storm Sudden release of large amounts of T3 and T4; caused by surgery, stress, infections, or other, unknown factors

A

Thyroid storm

111
Q

abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland

A

goiter

112
Q

results when dietary
iodine intake is so low that there is not enough iodine to synthesize T3 and T4

A

iodine-deficiency goiter

113
Q

most common preventable cause of mental defects,

A

iodine-deficiency diseases

114
Q

may be the most common endemic disease on the planet

A

hypothyroidism

115
Q

secretes excess T3 and T4, and it can result from
elevated TSH secretion or elevated TSH-like immunoglobulin

A

toxic goiter

116
Q

most common cause of hyperthyroidism

A

Graves disease

117
Q

usually embedded in
the posterior part of each lobe of the thyroid gland

A

parathyroid glands

118
Q

parathyroid glands are made up of two cell types:

A

chief cells (secrete parathyroid hormone,)
oxyphils

119
Q

polypeptide hormone that is important in regulating calcium levels in body fluids

A

Parathyroid hormone (PTH), also called parathormone

120
Q

Increased rate of breakdown of bone by osteoclasts;
increased reabsorption of Ca2+in kidneys; increased absorption of Ca2+from the small intestine; increased vitamin D synthesis; increased blood Ca2+ levels

A

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

121
Q

abnormally low levels of calcium in the blood

A

hypocalcemia

122
Q

produce a diverse set of hormones, is retroperitoneal and they are surrounded by abundant adipose tissue

A

adrenal glands (suprarenal)

123
Q

adrenal glands are composed of: (2)

A

medulla - arises from neural crest cells
cortex - derived from mesoderm

124
Q

LAYERS OF ADRENAL CORTEX (3)

A

zona glomerulosa - secretes aldosterone (mineralocorticoid)

zona fasciculata - secretes cortisol (glucocorticoid)

zona reticularis - secretes androgens and estrogen (and glucocorticoid)

125
Q

modified sympathetic nervous system
ganglion

A

adrenal medulla

126
Q

ADRENAL MEDULLA HORMONES (2)

A

epinephrine (80%; increases blood glucose levels) & norepinephrine (20%) - increased cardiac output; increased blood flow to skeletal muscles and to the heart; vasoconstriction of blood vessels, especially in the viscera
and skin; increased release of glucose and fatty acids into the blood; in general, preparation for physical activity

127
Q

ADRENAL CORTEX HORMONES (3)

A

mineralocorticoids - regulate ion balance in the blood and are the major secretory products of the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex; produces aldosterone

glucocorticoids - help to provide energy for cells by stimulating the
increased use of lipids and proteins

androgens

128
Q

secreted under low blood pressure conditions; secreted under low blood pressure conditions

A

aldosterone

129
Q

the synthesis of new glucose from precursor molecules,
such as amino acids in the liver),

A

gluconeogenesis

130
Q

generic term for steroid hormones that cause the development of male secondary sex characteristics

A

Androgen

131
Q

both an exocrine gland and an endocrine gland

A

pancreas

132
Q

exocrine portion of pancreas

A

acini produce pancreatic juice, and a duct system, which carries the
pancreatic juice to the small intestine

133
Q

endocrine portion of pancreas

A

pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) secrete hormones that enter the plasma of the blood

134
Q

secrete glucagon

A

alpha (α) cells (20%) - Increased breakdown of glycogen; release of glucose into the blood

135
Q

secrete insulin (lowers blood glucose levels by
stimulating glucose transport into body cells)

A

beta (β) cells (75%) - Increased uptake and use of glucose and amino
acids

136
Q

secrete somatostatin

A

delta (δ) cells - Inhibition of insulin and glucagon secretion

137
Q

a collection of neurons in the hypothalamus that
controls appetite

A

satiety center

138
Q

intense sensation of hunger in spite of high blood glucose levels

A

polyphagia

138
Q

results primarily from
the inadequate secretion of insulin or
the inability of tissues to respond to
insulin.

A

Diabetes mellitus

139
Q

also called insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM),
results from diminished insulin secretion. It develops as a result of
autoimmune destruction of the pancreatic
islets, and symptoms appear after approximately 90% of the islets have been destroyed

A

Type 1 diabetes mellitus

140
Q

also called noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
(NIDDM), usually develops in people older than 40–45 years
of age

A

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (more common)

141
Q

companion hormone to insulin

A

glucagon

142
Q

elevated blood levels of glucose

A

hyperglycemia

143
Q

low blood levels
of glucose

A

hypoglycemia

144
Q

main endocrine
glands of the male reproductive system

A

testes

145
Q

main hormone secreted by the
testes

A

testosterone

146
Q

regulates the
production of sperm cells by the testes and the development and
maintenance of male reproductive organs and secondary sexual
characteristics.

A

testosterone

147
Q

inhibits the secretion of FSH from the anterior
pituitary gland.

A

inhibin

148
Q

main endocrine glands of the female reproductive system

A

ovaries

149
Q

main hormones secreted by the ovaries

A

estrogen and progesterone

150
Q

Inhibits FSH secretion

A

inhibin

150
Q

Aids in uterine and mammary gland development and function, maturation of genitalia, secondary sex characteristics, sexual behavior (only estrogen), and menstrual cycle

A

estrogen and progesterone

150
Q

Increases the flexibility of connective tissue in the pelvic area, especially the symphysis pubis

A

relaxin

151
Q

act on the hypothalamus and the gonads to
inhibit reproductive functions, such as by inhibiting the secretion
of certain reproductive hormones

A

pineal gland

152
Q

Two substances have been proposed as secretory products:

A

melatonin - decrease hypothalamic GnRH secretion, may
inhibit reproductive functions, and also help regulate sleep
cycles by increasing the tendency to sleep

arginine vasotocin – regulate the function of the reproductive system in some animals; Possible inhibition of gonadotropin-releasing hormone secretion

153
Q

In some animals, pineal secretions are regulated by the
____, the amount of daylight and darkness that occurs
each day and changes with the seasons of the year

A

photo period

154
Q

important for immune function that is in
the neck and superior to the heart in the thorax

A

thymus

155
Q

The thymus
secretes the hormone

A

thymosin (development and maturation of the immune system)

ANAPHY LECTURE (10 decks)

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