Chapter 1 - The Human Organism Flashcards
The scientific discipline that investigates the body’s structures
Anatomy
Examines the relationship between the structure of a body part and its function
Anatomy
Levels of Anatomy (3)
Developmental, Gross, Surface Anatomy
Developmental Anatomy (3)
Embryology, Cytology, Histology
Studies the structural changes that occur
between conception and adulthood
Developmental anatomy
Considers changes from conception to the end of the eighth week of development
Embryology
Examines the structural features of cells,
Cytology
Examines tissues, which are composed of
cells and the materials surrounding them
Histology
the study of structures that can be examined
without the aid of a microscope
Gross anatomy
Approaches of Gross anatomy (2)
systemic anatomy (body is studied system by system) and regional anatomy (body is studied area by area)
a group of structures that have one
or more common functions
system
involves looking at the exterior of the body
to visualize structures deeper inside the body
Surface anatomy
uses radiographs (x-rays), ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and other technologies to create pictures of internal structures
Anatomical imaging
allows medical personnel to look inside the body with amazing accuracy and without the trauma and risk of exploratory surgery
Anatomical imaging
became the first medical scientist to use x-rays to see inside the body.
Wilhelm Roentgen (1895)
Why are the rays called as x-rays?
because no one knew what they were
physical characteristics that differ from the
normal pattern (ex. having two blood vessels supplying the kidney, “blue baby” syndrome)
Anatomical Anomalies
the scientific investigation of the processes or
functions of living things.
Physiology
goals when studying human
physiology
understand and predict the body’s responses to
stimuli and to understand how the body maintains conditions within
a narrow range of values in a constantly changing environment.
Levels of physiology (2)
Cell physiology, systemic physiology
examines the processes occurring in cells
Cell physiology
considers the functions of organ systems
systemic physiology
usual approach when examining physiology
systemic (a particular function can involve portions of a system in more than
one region)
the medical science
dealing with all aspects of disease
Pathology
focuses on the changes in function and structure caused by exercise
Exercise physiology
physiology that focuses on the nervous system
Neurophysiology
physiology that deals with the heart and blood vessels
cardiovascular physiology
Imaging techniques (6)
X-ray
Ultrasound
Computed Tomography (CT)
Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Six levels of organization
chemical (atom)
cell
tissue
organ
organ system
organism
involves interactions between atoms (tiny building blocks of matter)
Chemical level
the basic structural and functional
units of plants and animals
Cells
the small structures inside cells
organelles
organelle that contains the cell’s hereditary information
nucleus
organelles that manufacture adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule cells use for
energy.
mitochondria
composed of a group of similar cells
and the materials surrounding them
tissue
determine the functions of the
tissue
characteristics of the
cells and surrounding materials
four basic tissue types
epithelial
connective
muscle
nervous
composed of two or more tissue
types that perform one or more common functions
organ
a group of organs that together perform a common function or set of functions and are therefore viewed as a unit.
organ system
11 major organ systems
integumentary
skeletal
muscular
nervous
endocrine
cardiovascular
lymphatic,
respiratory
digestive
urinary
reproductive system
any living thing considered
as a whole
organism
six essential characteristics of life
Organization
Metabolism
Responsiveness
Growth
Development
Reproduction
refers to the specific interrelationships among
the parts of an organism and how those parts interact to perform specific functions.
Organization
refers to all of the chemical
reactions taking place in the cells and internal environment of an organism
Metabolism
an organism’s ability to sense changes
in its external or internal environment and adjust to those changes.
Responsiveness
refers to an increase in the size or number of cells
Growth
the changes an organism undergoes
through time, beginning with fertilization and ending at death
Development
changes in a cell’s structure and function from an immature, generalized state to a mature, specialized state.
Differentiation
the change in shape of tissues, organs, and the entire organism
Morphogenesis
formation of new cells or new organisms
reproduction
system that detects sensations and controls movements, physiological processes, and intellectual functions
Nervous System
system that influences
metabolism, growth, reproduction, etc.
Endocrine System
Transports nutrients, waste products, gases,
and hormones throughout the body; plays
a role in the immune response and the
regulation of body temperature
Cardiovascular System
Removes waste products from the blood and
regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water
balance
Urinary System
Produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization
and fetal development; produces milk for the
newborn; produces hormones that influence
sexual function and behaviors.
Female Reproductive System
Produces and transfers sperm cells to
the female and produces hormones that
influence sexual functions and behaviors.
Male Reproductive System
Provides protection, regulates temperature,
prevents water loss, and helps produce
vitamin D
Integumentary System
Provides protection and support, allows
body movements, produces blood cells, and
stores minerals and adipose.
Skeletal System
Produces body movements, maintains
posture, and produces body heat.
Muscular System
Removes foreign substances from the blood
and lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue
fluid balance, and absorbs dietary fats from
the digestive tract.
Lymphatic System
Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide
between the blood and air and regulates
blood pH
Respiratory System
Performs the mechanical and chemical
processes of digestion, absorption of
nutrients, and elimination of wastes.
Digestive System
considered the first modern anatomist
Andreas Vesalius
Introduced errors that persisted for more than 1300 years until Vesalius
Claudius Galen
existence and maintenance of a
relatively constant environment within the body.
Homeostasis
new conditions that our bodies are exposed to; their values can change (ex. body temperature)
variables
the ideal normal value for homeostatic mechanisms (ex. sweating or shivering)
set point
(T/F) body temperature increases and decreases slightly around the set point to produce a normal range of values.
True
How can homeostasis be maintained?
as body temperature remains within this normal range
a person’s average body temperature
98.6 degrees Fahrenheit/37 C
the maintenance of a variable around an ideal normal value or set point. The value of the variable fluctuates around the set point
to establish a normal range of values
Homeostasis
means that any deviation from the set point is made smaller or is resisted
Negative
the response to the original stimulus results in deviation from the set point, becoming smaller.
negative-feedback mechanism (ex. maintenance of body temperature)
Three components of negative-feedback mechanisms
receptor
control center
effector
monitors the value of a variable such as body temperature
receptor
such as part of the brain, which establishes the set point around which the variable is maintained through communication with the receptors and effectors
control center
such as sweat glands, which
can adjust the value of the variable, usually back toward the set point.
effector
initiates a homeostatic mechanism
stimulus
occur when a response to the
original stimulus results in the deviation from the set point becoming even greater (ex. blood clot formation)
Positive-feedback mechanisms
example of normally occurring positive-feedback mechanism
birth (contractions of the uterine
muscles)
example of a detrimental positive-feedback mechanism
inadequate delivery of blood
to cardiac (heart) muscle (deviation from the heart rate set point becoming larger and larger)
Two basic principles to remember:
(1) many disease
states result from the failure of negative-feedback mechanisms to
maintain homeostasis and
(2) some positive-feedback mechanisms
can be detrimental instead of helpful.
Latin word for “hole,”
foramen
magnum means?
large
a large hole in the skull
through which the spinal cord attaches to the brain.
foramen magnum
-itis means?
inflammation
position where the elbow is above the hand but, in the supine or prone position, the elbow
and hand are at the same level
anatomical position
describe parts of the body relative to each other.
Directional terms
used as directional terms in anatomical terminology.
Right and left
up
superior
down
inferior
front
anterior
back
posterior
In humans, the term superior is interchangeable with the term
cephalic (both used for “toward the
head,”)
the term inferior is
interchangeable with the term
caudal (two terms
are used for “toward the tail,”)
The word anterior means?
“That which goes before,”
ventral means?
toward the belly
The word posterior means
“That which follows,”
dorsal means?
toward the back
Proximal means?
nearest
distal means?
distant
distal means?
distant
Medial means?
“toward the midline,”
lateral means?
“away from the midline.”
describes a structure close to the surface of the body
Superficial
toward the interior of the body.
deep
The central region of the body consists of
head
neck
trunk
The trunk can be divided into
thorax
abdomen
pelvis
the chest cavity where the heart and lungs are
located
thorax
contains organs such as the liver, stomach,
and intestines
abdomen
contains the bladder and reproductive
organs
pelvis
The upper limb is divided into
arm
forearm
wrist
hand
extends from the shoulder to the elbow
arm
extends from the elbow to the wrist
forearm
The lower limb is divided into
thigh
leg
ankle
foot
extends from the hip to the knee
thigh
extends from the knee to the
ankle
leg
Quadrants of the abdomen (4)
right-upper
left-upper
right-lower
left-lower
Regions of the abdomen (9)
epigastric
right and left hypochondriac
umbilical
right and left lumbar
hypogastric
right and left iliac
REGIONS: forehead
frontal
eye
orbital
nose
nasal
mouth
oral
neck
cervical
ear
otic
cheek
buccal
chin
mental
collarbone
clavicular
chest
pectoral
breastbone
sternal
breast
mammary
armpit
axillary
arm
brachial
front of elbow
antecubital
forearm
antebrachial
wrist
carpal
palm
palmar
fingers
digital
abdomen
abdominal
navel
umbilical
hip
coxal
pelvis
pelvic
groin
inguinal
genital
pubic
thigh
femoral
kneecap
patellar
leg
crural
ankle
talus
top of foot
dorsum
toes
digital
divides, or sections, the body, making it possible to “look inside” and observe the body’s structures.
plane
runs vertically through the body, separating it into right and left portions
sagittal plane
sagittal literally means
“the flight of an
arrow”
a sagittal plane that passes through the midline of the body, dividing it into equal right and left halves
median plane
runs parallel to the ground, dividing the body into superior and inferior portions
transverse plane
runs vertically to divide the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts
frontal plane
A cut through the length of the organ
longitudinal section
a cut at a right angle to the length of an
organ
transverse (cross) section
a cut is made across the
the length of an organ at other than a right angle
oblique section
three large cavities that do not open to the outside of the body located in the trunk
thoracic
abdominal
pelvic
open to the outside of the body
nasal cavity
what separates thoracic cavity to the abdominal cavity?
muscular diaphragm
The thoracic cavity is divided into right and left parts by a middle section called
mediastinum
Abdominal muscles primarily enclose __
which contains the stomach, the intestines, the liver, the spleen, the pancreas, and the kidneys.
abdominal cavity
Pelvic bones encase the small space
known as the __, where the urinary bladder, part of the large intestine, and the internal reproductive organs are housed.
pelvic cavity
sometimes abdominal and pelvic cavities are not physically separated, they are called the
abdominopelvic cavity
line the trunk cavities and cover
the organs within these cavities
Serous Membranes
found against the outer wall of a body cavity
Parietal membranes
found covering the organs in a body cavity
visceral membranes
three serous membranes of the thoracic cavity
pericardial cavity (heart; visceral pericardium & parietal pericardium)
two pleural cavities (lung cavities; visceral pleura & parietal pleura)
contains pericardial fluid
pericardial cavity
The abdominopelvic cavity contains a serous membrane lined cavity called the
peritoneal cavity (visceral peritoneum & parietal peritoneum)
inflammation of the pericardium
Pericarditis
nflammation of the pleura
pleurisy
inflammation of the peritoneum
peritonitis
anchor the organs to the body wall and provide a pathway for nerves and blood vessels to reach the organs
mesenteries (abdominopelvic cavity)
behind the peritoneum (covered by the Parietal peritoneum)
retroperitoneal /organs (ex. kidneys, the
adrenal glands, the pancreas, parts of the intestines, and the urinary bladder)
connect the visceral peritoneum of some abdominopelvic organs to the parietal peritoneum on the body wall
mesenteries
(T/F) Much of our knowledge about humans is derived from research on other
organisms
True
(T/F) Directional terms always refer to the anatomical position, no matter what
the actual position of the body.
True
