CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM - BLOOD Flashcards
1
Q
Blood helps maintain homeostasis in several ways:
A
- Transport of gases, nutrients, and waste products
- Transport of processed molecules
- Transport of regulatory molecules
- Regulation of pH and osmosis
- Maintenance of body temperature
- Protection against foreign substances
- Clot formation.
2
Q
a type of connective tissue consisting of a liquid matrix
containing cells and cell fragments
A
Blood
3
Q
the liquid matrix
A
plasma (55%)
4
Q
formed elements
A
cells and cell fragments (45%)
5
Q
The total blood volume in the average adult
A
4–5 L in females and 5–6 L in males
6
Q
makes up about 8% of the total weight of the body
A
blood
7
Q
a pale-yellow fluid that consists of about 91% water and 9% other substances, such as proteins, ions, nutrients, gases, waste products, and regulatory substances
A
plasma
8
Q
a liquid
containing suspended substances that do not settle out of solution
A
colloid
9
Q
make
up about 7% of the volume of plasma
A
plasma proteins
10
Q
plasma proteins can be classified into
three groups:
A
Albumin - 58% of the plasma proteins and is important in regulating
the movement of water between the tissues and the blood; Partly responsible for blood viscosity and osmotic pressure; acts as a buffer; transports fatty acids, free bilirubin,
and thyroid hormones
Globulins - 38% of the plasma proteins that function in transporting many substances in the blood as well as protecting against microorganisms
Fibrinogen - 4% of the plasma proteins and is responsible for the formation of blood clots
11
Q
plasma without the clotting factors
A
serum
12
Q
(T/F) plasma volume remains relatively constant
A
T
13
Q
make up about
95% of the volume of the formed elements.
A
Red blood cells, or erythrocytes
14
Q
The remaining 5%
consists of
A
white blood cells, or leukocytes and cell
fragments called platelets, or thrombocytes
15
Q
(T/F) in healthy adults, white blood cells are the only formed elements possessing nuclei
A
T
16
Q
process of blood cell production
A
hematopoiesis or hemopoiesis
17
Q
replaces red marrow in other body locations
A
yellow marrow
18
Q
All the formed elements of the blood are derived from a single
population of stem cells in the red bone marrow called
A
hemocytoblasts
19
Q
Red blood
cells, platelets, and most of the white blood cells develop from
A
myeloid stem cell
20
Q
produce red blood cells
A
proerythroblasts
21
Q
produce basophils, eosinophils, and neutrophils.
A
myeloblasts
22
Q
produce monocytes
A
monoblasts
23
Q
produce platelets
A
megakaryoblasts
24
Q
secreted by endocrine cells of the kidneys, that stimulates myeloid
stem cells to develop into red blood cells
A
Erythropoietin (EPO)
25
regulate the development of the different
types of formed elements
colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) a
26
700 times more
numerous than white blood cells and 17 times more numerous than
platelets in the blood
Red blood cells (RBCs)
27
Involved in osmosis, membrane potentials, and acid-base balance
Ions (Sodium, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, chloride, iron, phosphate,
hydrogen, hydroxide, bicarbonate)
28
Source of energy and basic “building blocks” of more complex molecules
Glucose, amino acids,
triglycerides, cholesterol (Nutrients)
29
Promote enzyme activity
Vitamins (Nutrients)
29
Breakdown products of protein metabolism; excreted by the kidneys
Urea, uric acid, creatinine,
ammonia salts (Waster products)
30
Breakdown product of red blood cells; excreted as part of the bile from the liver into the small intestine
bilirubin (waste products)
31
End product of anaerobic respiration; converted to glucose by the liver
Lactate (waste products)
32
Necessary for aerobic respiration; terminal electron acceptor in electron-transport chain
oxygen (gases)
33
Waste product of aerobic respiration; as bicarbonate, helps buffer blood
carbon dioxide (gases)
34
Innate
nitrogen (gases)
35
Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions; hormones stimulate or inhibit many body functions
Regulatory Substances
36
main component of the red blood cell that occupies about
one-third of the total volume of a red blood cell and accounts for
its red color
hemoglobin
37
transport oxygen from the lungs to the various body tissues and to transport carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs
RBCs
38
occurs when red blood cells
rupture and the hemoglobin is released into the plasma.
Hemolysis
39
a complex protein consisting of four subunits
hemoglobin
40
Each polypeptide chain
globin
41
a red-pigment molecule containing one iron atom
heme
42
There are three forms of hemoglobin:
embryonic (first type of hemoglobin produced during development)
fetal (replaced to the third month od development)
adult (60–90% of the hemoglobin is adult hemoglobin)
43
oxygenated form of hemoglobin
oxyhemoglobin
44
Hemoglobin containing no oxygen
deoxyhemoglobin
45
a disorder in which
red blood cells become sickle-shaped
sickle-cell disease
46
carbon dioxide attaches to the globin molecule
carbaminohemoglobin
47
how many RBCs are destroyed every second?
2.5 million
48
mechanism done to replace the lost cells
homeostasis
49
maintained
by replacing the 2.5 million cells lost every second with an equal
number of new red blood cells
homeostasis
50
process by which new red blood cells are produced
erythropoiesis
51
immature
red blood cells
reticulocytes
52
Red blood cell production is regulated by
erythropoietin
53
The normal lifespan of a red blood cell
120 days in males and 110 days in females
54
located in the spleen, liver, and other lymphatic
tissue take up the hemoglobin released from ruptured red blood
cells
macrophages
55
conversion of hemoglobin
globin - amino acids - iron atoms - new hemoglobin // non-iron - biliverdin - bilirubin - free bilirubin - liver - conjugated bilirubin - bile
56
fluid secreted from the liver into the small intestine
bile
57
a yellowish staining of the skin
and the sclerae of the eyes caused by a buildup of bile pigments in
the blood and some tissues
jaundice
58
form a thin, white layer of cells between the plasma and the red blood
cells.
white blood cells (WBCs) or buffy coat
59
lack hemoglobin but have a nucleus
WBCs
60
hite blood cells are grouped into two categories based on their
appearance in stained preparations:
granulocytes (with large cytoplasmic granules and lobed nuclei)
agranulocytes (no granules)
61
three types of granulocytes
Neutrophils - stain with acidic and basic dyes
eosinophils - stain red with acidic dyes,
basophils - stain dark purple with basic dyes
62
two types of agranulocytes:
lymphocytes
monocytes
63
protect the body against invading microorganisms and remove dead cells and debris from the body
WBCs
64
Three characteristics of WBCs;
ameboid movement (ability to move as an ameba does, by putting
out irregular cytoplasmic projections. allows white blood cells to have more directed movement, instead of moving only with the flow of blood)
diapedesis - they become thin and elongated and slip between or
through the cells of blood vessel walls
chemotaxis - white blood cells can be attracted to foreign materials or dead cells within the tissue
65
accumulation of dead
white blood cells and bacteria, along with fluid and cell debris
pus
66
five types of white blood cells
neutrophils
eosinophils
basophils
lymphocytes
monocytes
67
e 60–70% of white blood cells; number of lobes
varying from two to five; polymorphonuclear neutrophils, or PMNs
Neutrophils
68
the first of the white blood cells to respond to
infection.
neutrophils
69
Neutrophils also secrete a class of enzymes called
lysozymes
70
2–4% of white blood cells; often have a two-lobed nucleus; e important
in the defense against certain worm parasites, increase in number in tissues experiencing inflammation, such as during allergic reactions (ex. histamine)
Eosinophils
71
have
harmful effects on respiratory airways in certain forms of asthma
eosinophils
72
0.5–1% of white blood cells; increase in number in both allergic and inflammatory reactions; contain large amounts of histamine (to increase inflammation) and heparin (inhibits blood clotting)
basophils
72
e 20–25% of white blood cells; smallest white blood cells; consists
of only a thin, sometimes imperceptible, ring around the nucleus; originate in red bone marrow and migrate through the blood to lymphatic tissues, where they can proliferate and produce more lymphocytes
lymphocytes
73
Types of lymphocytes:
B cells
T cells
74
a type of lymphocyte that can be stimulated by bacteria or toxins to divide and form cells that produce antibodies
B cells
75
a class of plasma proteins also called immunoglobulins that can attach to bacteria and activate mechanisms that destroy the bacteria.
antibodies
76
another type of lymphocyte that protect against viruses and other
intracellular microorganisms by attacking and destroying the cells
in which they are found.
T cells
77
involved in the
destruction of tumor cells and in tissue graft rejections
T cells
78
3–8% of white blood cells; largest of the white blood cells; remain in the blood for about 3 days and eave the blood and are transformed into macrophages.
Monocytes
79
An increase in the number of
monocytes in the blood is often associated with
chronic infection
80
Macrophages also stimulate responses from other cells in two
ways:
(1) r4eleasing chemical messengers and
(2) phagocytizing and processing foreign substances, which are then presented to lymphocytes
81
minute fragments of cells
Platelets, or thrombocytes
82
consist of a small amount of cytoplasm
surrounded by a plasma membrane.
Platelets
82
consist of a small amount of cytoplasm
surrounded by a plasma membrane.
Platelets
83
The life expectancy of platelets is about
5–9 days
84
Platelets
are derived from
megakaryocytes (extremely large cells found in the red bone marrow)
85
Platelets play an important role in preventing blood loss by
(1) forming platelet plugs that seal holes in small vessels and
(2) promoting the formation and contraction of clots that help seal
off larger wounds in the vessels
86
cessation of breeding, is very important to the maintenance of homeostasis
Hemostasis
87
Hemostasis
involves three processes:
(1) vascular spasm
(2) platelet plug formation
(3) coagulation
88
immediate but temporary constriction of a
blood vessel
vascular spasm
89
accumulation of platelets that can seal small
breaks in blood vessels.
platelet plug
90
Platelet Plug Formation
Platelet adhesion - platelets bind to collagen that
is exposed when a blood vessel is damaged
platelet release reaction - ADP, thromboxane, and other chemicals are released from the activated platelets by exocytosis
platelet aggregation - fibrinogen forms a bridge
between the fibrinogen receptors of different platelets, resulting in a platelet plug
91
happens when a blood vessel is severely damaged, results in the formation of a clot.
coagulation or blood clotting
92
a network of threadlike protein fibers, called
fibrin, that traps blood cells, platelets, and fluid
blood clot
93
proteins found within
plasma
clotting factors, or coagulation factors
94
Clotting factors are activated in two ways:
extrinsic pathway
intrinsic pathway
95
begins with chemicals
that are outside of, or extrinsic to, the blood
extrinsic pathway
96
Plasma protein synthesized in the liver; converted to fibrin in the common pathway
Factor 1 - Fibrinogen
97
Plasma protein synthesized in the liver (requires vitamin K); converted to thrombin in the common pathway
Factor 2 - Prothrombin
98
Mixture of lipoproteins released from damaged tissue; required in the extrinsic pathway
Factor 3 - Thromboplastin (tissue factor)
99
Required throughout the clotting sequence
Factor 4 - Calcium ion
100
Plasma protein synthesized in the liver; activated form functions in the intrinsic and extrinsic pathway
Factor 5 - Proaccelerin (labile factor)
101
Once thought to be involved but no longer accepted as playing a role in clotting; apparently the same as activated factor V
Factor 6
102
Plasma protein synthesized in the liver (requires vitamin K); functions in the extrinsic pathway
Factor 7 - Serum prothrombin conversion
accelerator (stable factor, proconvertin)
103
Plasma protein synthesized in megakaryocytes and endothelial cells; required in the intrinsic pathway
Factor 8 - Antihemophilic factor (antihemophilic globulin)
104
Plasma protein synthesized in the liver (requires vitamin K); required in the intrinsic pathway
Factor 9 - Plasma thromboplastin component
(Christmas factor)
105
Plasma protein synthesized in the liver (requires vitamin K); required in the common pathway
Factor 10 - Stuart factor (Stuart-Prower factor)
106
Plasma protein synthesized in the liver; required in the intrinsic pathway
Factor 11 - Plasma thromboplastin antecedent
107
Plasma protein required in the intrinsic pathway
Factor 12 - Hageman factor
108
Protein found in plasma and platelets; required in the common pathway
Factor 13 - Fibrin-stabilizing factor
109
Same as plasma factor V
Factor 1 - Platelet acceleratoe
110
Accelerates thrombin and fibrin production
Factor 2 - Thrombin accelerator
111
Phospholipids necessary for the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways
Factor 3
112
Binds heparin, which prevents clot formation
Factor 4
113
begins with chemicals that are inside, or intrinsic to, the blood
intrinsic pathway
114
protein that forms the fibrous network
of the blood clot
fibrin
115
required for the formation of many of the factors
involved in blood clot formation
Vitamin K
116
converts fibrinogen to
fibrin (the clot).
thrombin
117
activates clotting factors,
promoting clot formation and
stabilizing the fibrin clot.
thrombin
118
lack intestinal bacteria; thus, they ack these intestinal bacteria
newborns
119
prevent clotting factors from initiating clot formation under
normal concentrations in the blood.
anticoagulants
120
a plasma protein
produced by the liver, slowly inactivates thrombin
Antithrombin
121
prostaglandin derivative produced by endothelial cells. It counteracts the effects of thrombin by causing vasodilation and inhibiting
the release of clotting factors from platelets
Prostacyclin
122
prevent clot formation by binding to Ca2+
, thus, making the ions inaccessible for clotting reactions
ethylenediaminetetraacetic
acid (EDTA) and sodium citrate.
123
process whereby the blood clot condenses into a denser, compact
structure
clot retraction
124
of blood vessels or the heart, an attached clot called
a __ may form
thrombus
125
thrombus that
breaks loose and begins to float through the blood is called
embolus
126
can cause death if they block vessels that supply blood to essential organs, such as the heart, brain, or lungs.
thrombus and embolus
127
process that dissolves the blood clot
fibrinolysis
128
hydrolyzes, or breaks, fibrin, thereby
dissolving the clot
plasmin
129
transfer of blood or blood components from one individual to
another
transfusion
130
introduction of a
fluid other than blood, such as a saline or glucose solution, into the blood
infusion
131
surfaces of red
blood cells have marker molecules which identify the cells
antigens
132
proteins that bind to antigens
anibodies
133
(T/F) each antibody can bind only to a certain antigen
T
134
clumping of cells
agglutination
135
te reactions that cause hemolysis. Because the
antigen-antibody combinations can cause agglutination, the antigens
are often called
agglutinogens
136
antibodies are called
agglutinins
137
how many blood groups have been identified?
more than 35
138
used to categorize human blood
based on the presence or absence of A and B antigens on the surface of red blood cells
ABO blood group
139
Type A Antigen
Type A
140
Type B antigen
Type B
141
Type AB Antigens
Type A and B
142
Type O antigen
Neither
143
Anti-A antibodies act
against
Type A antigens
144
anti-B antibodies act against
Type B antigens
145
plasma from type A blood contains
anti-B antibodies
146
plasma from type B blood contains
anti-a antibodies
147
antibody of type AB
neither
148
antibody of type O
Type A and B
149
person who gives blood
donor
150
person who receives it
receipient
151
first studied in
rhesus monkeys.
Rh blood group
152
antigen involved in this blood group
D antigen
153
People are Rh-__if they have the D antigen on the
surface of their red blood cells
positive
154
In the fetal blood, the Rh antibodies will
act against the D antigens on the red blood cells and cause agglutination and hemolysis of fetal red blood cells. This disorder is call
hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) or erythroblastosis fetalis (2nd pregnancy)
155
Prevention of HDN is often possible if the Rh-negative mother
is injected with a specific type of antibody preparation, called
Rho(D) immune globulin (RhoGAM)
156
determines the ABO and Rh blood groups of the blood sample
blood typing
157
the donor’s blood
cells are mixed with the recipient’s serum, and the donor’s serum is
mixed with the recipient’s cells.
crossmatch
158
(T/F) The donor’s blood is considered
safe for transfusion only if no agglutination occurs in either match
T
159
an analysis of blood that provides much useful information; consists of a red blood count, hemoglobin and hematocrit measurements, a white blood count, and a differential white blood count.
complete blood count (CBC)
160
usually performed with an electronic instrument, but they can also be done manually with a microscope; the number (expressed in millions) of
red blood cells per microliter of blood
red blood count (RBC)
161
A normal RBC for a male
4.6–6.2 million/μL of blood
162
for a female, a normal RBC is
4.2–5.4 million/μL of blood
163
overabundance of red blood cells
erythrocytosis
164
determines the amount of hemoglobin
in a given volume of blood, usually expressed as grams of hemoglobin per 100 mL of blood.
Hemoglobin Measurement
165
The normal hemoglobin count for a male is
14–18 g/100 mL of blood
166
for a female it is
12–16 g/100 mL
167
Abnormally low hemoglobin is an indication of
anemia
168
percentage of
the total blood volume that is composed of red blood cells.
Hematocrit Measurement
169
normal-sized red
blood cells with a diameter of 7.5 mm
Normocytes
170
smaller than normal, with a diameter of 6 μm or less,
microcytes
171
larger than normal, with a diameter
of 9 μm or greater. B
macrocytes
172
measures the total number of white
blood cells in the blood.
White Blood Count
173
Normally, how many white blood
cells are present in each microliter of blood?
5000–10,000
174
lower than normal WBC resulting from depression or destruction of the red marrow.
Leukopenia
175
abnormally high WBC
Leukocytosis
176
cancer of the red marrow,
often results in leukocytosis, but the white blood cells have an
abnormal structure and function as well. B
Leukemia
177
determines the percentage of each
of the five kinds of white blood cells
Differential White Blood Count
neutrophils account 60–70%
lymphocytes, 20–30%
monocytes, 2–8%
eosinophil 1–4%
basophils, 0.5–1%
178
The blood’s ability to clot can be assessed by
platelet count
and the prothrombin time measurement
179
A normal platelet count is
250,000–400,000 platelets per microliter of blood
180
platelet count is greatly reduced,
resulting in chronic bleeding through small vessels and capillaries
thrombocytopenia
181
expresses how long it takes
for the blood to start clotting, which is normally 9–12 seconds
Prothrombin time measurement
182
officially reported as the International
Normalized Ratio (INR), which standardizes the time blood
takes to clot based on the slightly different thromboplastins
used by different labs.
Prothrombin time
