educational inequalities - differential achievement Flashcards
class differences in achievement
inside factors- labelling
Becker
found that teachers see middle class pupils as closest to the ‘ideal pupil’ in terms of performance, conduct, appearance and attitude.
Labels applied by teachers to pupils share the nature and quality of the interaction between pupil and teacher
Pupils will react to these judgments leading to a self fulfilling prophecy where the pupil internalises the label and conforms to a prediction.
Therefore working class students may be labelled as non-achievers or deviant which may lead to their lack of achievement
class differences in achievement
inside factors-labelling
Keddie
Researched streaming (grouping students based on ability) found evidence of teachers expectations being less for those in bottom streams affecting teacher attitude and practise
A streamers- were trusted to work with minimum supervision and make contributions to class discussion
C streamers- needed constant social control and formed anti school subcultures.
class differences in achievement
inside factors-labelling
hargreaves
Compared 2 streams of boys and found the selection of streams was closely related to behaviour. Top streams reward for behaviour whilst lower streams form anti school subcultures which increased the polarisation of the ability groups.
Process that occurred between the labelling of teachers about students:
Speculation based on guesses, working hypothesis based on interactions, elaboration testing hypothesis,= and stabilisation interpreting judgements and interactions.
class differences in achievement
inside factors- labelling
abrahams
Interconnection of setting, labelling and subcultures to explain why students underachieve. Dominant class and gender ideologies of society are promoted in education by teachers, who subconsciously label students. Streaming should be stopped and trainee teachers educated to recognise labelling
class differences in achievement
inside factors- pupil subcultures
hargreaves
Compared 2 streams of boys and found the selection of streams was closely related to behaviour. Top streams reward for behaviour whilst lower streams form anti school subcultures which increased the polarisation of the ability groups.
Process that occurred between the labelling of teachers about students:
Speculation based on guesses, working hypothesis based on interactions, elaboration testing hypothesis,= and stabilisation interpreting judgements and interactions.
class differences in achievement
inside factors- pupil subcultures
mac and ghail
Subcultures of working class boys who followed their fathers into traditional working class manual labour jobs. ‘Macho lads’ shaped their working class identity by performing manual labour work. De-industrialisation led to their crisis of masculinity as there was a shift to part time office based roles suited to the lifestyles of women. These boys did not have the academic qualifications needed to move into new working class job roles so had no medium for displaying working class masculinity as women become breadwinners.
class differences in achievement
inside factors- pupil subcultures
Studied 12 working class boys ‘lads’ forming a counter school subculture who felt superior to more conformist pupils ‘earoles.’ They showed little interest in academic work, preferred ‘having a laff’, tried to identify with the adult non-school world and saw manual work as superior to mental work. Counter school subculture prepared them for the boredom and monotony of shop floor work of local factories
class differences in achievement
inside factors- theoretical explanations
althusser-marxist
Education is impacted by the infrastructure to benefit the bourgeoisie by passing on ruling class ideologies and passing on necessary skills to create a workforce. Ideological state apparatus - education is used by the ruling class to pass on ideologies and ensure the working class are kept in a subordinate position. The education system is manipulated and designed to ensure students are trained to be unquestioning, subordinate, hard working and conformist
class differences in achievement
inside factors- theoretical explanations
bowles+gintis-marxism
Education serves to reproduce the capitalist relations of production with appropriate skills and attitudes. Correspondence principle- workers will adapt to the needs of the system and school corresponds to the world of work. Pupils who fit in and conform rise above those who express attitudes or behaviours challenging the system
class differences in achievement
inside factors- theoretical explanations
durkheim-functionalist
Education should emphasise the moral responsibilities members of society have towards each other- passing on social solidarity and value consensus. Education ensures people have skills for a specialised division of labour and standardised testing helps to assess skills.
class differences in achievement
inside factors- theoretical explanations
davis+moore-functionalism
Education performs role allocation by sorting and grading students in terms of ability which is rewarded in exam success ensuring those with highest ability are rewarded in a meritocratic society in terms of economic rewards to ensure these people fill the most functionally important roles
class differences in achievement
outside factors-biological
eysenck
States that IQ is largely inherited as 60-80% is genetically based. Claims that ‘what children take out of school is proportional to what they bring to the school in terms of IQ.’ class differences in intelligence largely account for class differences in educational attainment.
class differences in achievement
outside factors-biological
hernstein and jensen-new right
60-80% of intelligence is genetically based. Class differences in intelligence largely account for class differences in educational achievement.
class differences in achievement
outside factors- material
smith and noble
Low income students face ‘financial barriers to learning’ as parents can’t afford school uniforms, transport, materials and textbooks leading to isolation and bullying, less likely to have an area to work at home, more likely to work part time and marketisation of schools meaning better resourced schools are in affluent areas.
class differences in achievement
outside factors- material
Raey et al
Discussed the idea of economic capital which is needed to gain cultural capital having a negative impact on some students educational attainment as they miss out on it. Working class students are more likely to have part time jobs so are more likely to work longer hours reducing their chances of attaining higher grades.
25% of private school students have extra tuition compared to only 10% of state school students.
Positive evaluation: led to increases in tuition fees - increase in ‘fear of debt’
class differences in achievement
outside factors- material
palmer
50% of BAME students are from low income families which will impact their life chances i.e. lack economic capital to achieve in education fully (tutors, resources etc…).
class differences in achievement
outside factors- material
callendar and jackson
Surveys on 2000 prospect HE students examining attitudes to debt, class positions and decision for HE destinations.
Discussed ‘fear of debt’ and found those afraid of debt were 4x less likely to apply for university. This fear was greatest among the poor and stopped them applying completely.
UCAS - number of uk applicants to uni fell by 8.6% in 2012 when tuition fees went up.
class differences in achievement
outside factors- cultural
douglas
Longitudinal study on factors affecting attainment including students health, size of family, school ect.
Most significant factor was the degree of parents’ interest in their education. Middle class parents more likely to encourage attainment and progression based on the indicator of more frequent visits to the school to discuss their childs progress
class differences in achievement
outside factors- cultural
feinstein
Argued that parental interest was a significant factor in education attainment and that class differences existed in terms of support. Measured parental interest by asking for teachers judgement of how much interest parents showed in their parents education
Criticisms - attendance to school could be due to a lack of choice due to working hours rather than to a lack of interest in their child’s progress.
class differences in achievement
outside factors- cultural
bernstein
Notes the importance of language upon educational attainment in relation to social class. The middle class use restricted code(informal) and elaborated code(formal) whereas the working class only have access to the restricted code.
This access of the middle class to elaborated code means they outperform the working class as they engage more in higher level discussions and can enhance their answers as is more highly rewarded.
class differences in achievement
outside factors- cultural
sugarman
The working class formed a different subculture and were characterised by the following characteristics:
-fatalism: manual labour future mapped out and no attempt to change it
-immediate gratification: aim of going to work for financial reasons
-present time orientation: focused on what’s happening at time and not towards work and progressing
-collectivism: involved in anti school subcultures
class differences in achievement
outside factors- cultural
bourdieu
Education system is systematically biased in favour of the culture of the dominant social classes devaluing the norms, values and knowledge of the working classes. Cultural deprivation reproducing inequalities. Middle class children have more cultural capital rewarding them more in education as their cultural assets are seen as worthy of investment and reward.
class differences in achievement
outside factors- cultural
gerwitz
Argued that competition between schools benefits the middle class who can get their children into more desirable schools. Differences in economic and cultural capital lead to class differences in parents’ choice of secondary school. Middle class parents tend to be privileged skilled choosers accessing the best schools and have more economic capital meaning they can move house into areas with better schools.
ethnic differences in achievement
inside factors- labelling+institutional racism
gillborn
The education system is ‘institutionally racist’ as teachers racist assumptions led them to believe that black male students would cause trouble so would see the behaviour of these students as challenging. Disproportionate amounts of black students are not entered into higher tiers - leading to their lower achievement. Caribbean boys underachievement is due to in school factors and institutional racism. He says exclusions of black boys are unjustified and white pupils committing the same acts are more likely to face less serious punishments.
ethnic differences in achievement
inside factors- labelling+institutional racism
jasper
Agrees that schools are institutionally racist and claims a self-fulfilling prophecy occurs where black male students live down to negative labels given by teachers. The curriculum needs to be adapted to make it more relevant.
ethnic differences in achievement
inside factors- labelling+institutional racism
crozier
Pakistani pupils ;keep to themselves’ because they are made to feel excluded and different at school. Pakistani and Bangladeshi pupils had experienced: anxieties about safety, racist abuse, not feeling assemblies were relevant and career advisors believing south asian girls were bound by tradition so it was a waste of time advising them. This led to underachievement.
ethnic differences in achievement
inside factors- labelling+institutional racism
mirza
Mixed methods ethnography on students and found that black african and carribean girls are ambitious, determined to succeed and have high status aspirations. Teacher typology into categories:
-over racists- displayed racial prejudice
-christians- treated pupils equally but didn’t acknowledge racial prejudice
-the crusaders- actively challenged racism
-black teachers- content teaching students regardless of ethnicity
-liberal chauvinists- promoted equality but were ill-informed
ethnic differences in achievement
inside factors- labelling+institutional racism
mac an ghaill
Ethnographic study looked at relations between white teachers and 2 groups of male students with anti school values- ‘asian warriors’ and ‘african caribbean rasta heads.’ they identified that for the ‘rasta heads’ racism was the cause of their underachievement and not the attitudes of the boys themselves. Black youths systematically experience education in a different way to white pupils due to institutional racism and the ethnocentric curriculum.
ethnic differences in achievement
inside factors-education system
abbott
Black boys face high exclusion rates in schools. children are educated in schools not home meaning that culture and external factors cannot be blamed for the underachievement of black males. Claims the curriculum does not do enough to be inclusive.
ethnic differences in achievement
inside factors- education system
coard
The school curriculum is ethnocentric so it is based around white British viewpoint while ignoring others. White history and literature dominate the curriculum and teachers were found to be dismissive of non-standard English as a way of speaking. The culture of ethnic minorities is devalued and students become de-motivated as they can’t fully identify with the course content.
ethnic differences in achievement
outside factors- intelligence
hernstein and jensen-new right
Black people have lower level scores in IQ tests than white people which means they have lower intelligence levels which is the reason they underachieve in the education system.
ethnic differences in achievement
outside factors- intelligence
eysenck
‘What children take out of school is proportional to what they bring into the schools in terms of IQ.’
ethnic differences in achievement
outside factors-material
swann report
Social class differences account for a high proportion of differences in achievement between ethnic groups:
-africans, bangladeshis and pakistanis are 3X more likely to be unemployed than whites
-15% of minority groups live in overcrowded homes (2% of whites)
-pakistanis are 2X more likely to be in unskilled jobs
ethnic differences in achievement
outside factors-material
sewell
Blames the culture of black caribbean boys for their failure. Matriarchal background means they were financially deprived so turned to role models and rap culture to ‘get rich quick’ through illegitimate means. They were drawn to hyper-masculine anti school subcultures which were not conducive to learning.
ethnic differences in achievement
outside factors-material
smith and noble
Low income students face ‘financial barriers to learning’ as parents can’t afford school uniforms, transport, materials and textbooks leading to isolation and bullying, less likely to have an area to work at home, more likely to work part time and marketisation of schools meaning better resourced schools are in affluent areas.
Applied to ethnic minorities as many live in deprivation meaning they face these barriers to learning.
ethnic differences in achievement
outside factors-cultural
driver and ballard
British Indian families place a great value on their children’s education and push them to have high ambitions and gain good grades. This is reflected in the achievement of indian pupils who do better on average at GCSE than black and white groups
ethnic differences in achievement
outside factors-cultural
archer and francis
Cultural factors are important in explaining the success of British Chinese students. Educational success is a big part of their identity. Parents talk to children about their future education and invest time and money in supporting children. Parents were critical of white British parents who were allowing failure to develop.
ethnic differences in achievement
outside factors-cultural
bologani
Discusses the ‘myth of return.’ Some ethnic groups are attached to their country of origin and may one day return there-increasing the rise of islamophobia in schools. Students with family from Pakistan are more likely to take longer holidays and religious commitments. Students miss out on course content and teachers presume that they are not fully focused on their educational attainment.
ethnic differences in achievement
outside factors-cultural
modood
Ethnic minority parents face language barriers which can negatively impact children’s educational attainment. ⅗ bangladeshi women did not speak english, ½ of pakistani women, ⅕ of pakistani and bangladeshi men. This impacts educational attainment.
ethnic differences in achievement
outside factors-cultural
sewell
Blames the culture of black caribbean boys as they lack positive role models so are financially deprived and turn to role models in rap culture to ‘get rich quick’. Drawn to peer pressure, hypermasculinity, anti-school subculture.
ethnic differences in achievement
outside factors-cultural
hendessi
States that poverty is the key factor to educational underachievement for Bangladeshi and Pakistani students. Family and culture norms and values are also important, especially for girls.
girls gender differences in achievement
inside factors-policy change
education reform act
Introduction of coursework-the abolition of the 11+ and introduction of the national curriculum meant for the first time boys and girls were entitled to have the same education. Introduction of more coursework- girls are more methodological and organised.
girls gender differences in achievement
inside factors-policy change
gist and wise
Teacher training from the 1970s has changed and teachers believe it’s important to develop girls in a way that would have been unthinkable a few years ago. Exam questions, textbooks and classroom language have changed to include and recognise girls so they see education as an institution for them.
girls gender differences in achievement
inside factors- stem subjects
kelly
Science subjects packaged for boys. Textbooks have few women portrayed in them. Teachers let boys dominate science classrooms.
girls gender differences in achievement
inside factors- stem subjects
colley
Subject choices were gendered based on perceptions of what is masculine and feminine, teacher and parental encouragement and whether pupils went to mixed or single sex schools.
girls gender differences in achievement
inside factors- attitudes to learning
burns and bracey
Girls put more effort into homework and unlike boys are prepared to draft and redraft assignments. Girls seem to mature earlier than boys so work harder and are more motivated throughout school whilst boys struggle to catch up in secondary.
girls gender differences in achievement
outside factors-changing attitudes
mirsos and browne
Statistics on achievement to argue boys are underachieving in the education system but still think that girls are disadvantaged through their subject choices and life chances. Adopt a balanced position drawing on reasons for improvements in girls achievement and reasons for boys underachievement
girls gender differences in achievement
outside factors-changing attitudes
sharpe
Girls’ priorities have changed due to attitudes towards education, work and marriage. Being career focused meant that they worked harder in education to ensure they could be successful. Education was therefore seen as the main route to get a good job and financial independence.
girls gender differences in achievement
outside factors-changing attitudes
francis and skelton
Majority of pupils saw their future identity in terms of their careers, rather than seeing employment as simply a stopgap before marriage. Also found that girls, especially in middle class families, were under increasing pressure from parents to achieve exam success.
girls gender differences in achievement
outside factors-changing attitudes
beck
Theory of risk society. We are moving into an era of second modernity in which society is characterised by greater risk and uncertainty. This can be seen in greater concern about the risks of divorce and relationship breakdown and also of loss of jobs. People have become more individualised, self-sufficient and self reliant. Young women are putting their women’s financial independence first and are more wary of the risks associated with marriage and economic dependency on a husband.
girls gender differences in achievement
outside factors- socialisation into gender roles
oakley
Socialisation through manipulation, canalisation, verbal appellations and domestic activities shapes behaviour of children from an early age into gender roles.
girls gender differences in achievement
outside factors- socialisation into gender roles
mcrobbie and garber
Girls were more protected by parents and given less freedom than their brothers. This resulted in them spending more time at home and developing ‘bedroom cultures’ involving chatting to friends and studying as the environment is conducive to learning
boys gender differences in achievement
inside (culture of masculinity) and outside (socialisation)
willis
Lads displayed strong hegemonic masculinity and anti-school peer groups reproduced working class position by not valuing education. Fathers often came from a background where manual labour was the norm and education wasnt valued, lads followed in their fathers footsteps and reproduced their positions in the labour market. The school environment can often reinforce hegemonic roles, especially in terms of masculinity.
boys gender differences in achievement
inside (culture of masculinity) and outside (socialisation)
sewell
A lack of positive role models for black Caribbean boys meant they turned to role models in rap culture to ‘get rich quick’ through illegitimate means, not hard work. These boys are vulnerable to peer pressure in hyper-masculine anti school subcultures. He calls black boys the ‘kings in the playground but paupers in the classroom’ meaning they act out hyper masculine behaviours but are not conducive to learning.
boys gender differences in achievement
inside (culture of masculinity) and outside (socialisation)
frosh et al
Boys felt they risked being labelled as ‘gay’ by male peers if they worked hard therefore leading them to acting masculine and anti-school. Within education boys assert their ‘normal’ masculinity through heterosexuality, meaning that because education is not seen as ‘masculine’ they face homophobic taunts. As a result boys may underachieve in education in order to experience inclusion amongst their peers
boys gender differences in achievement
inside (culture of masculinity) and outside (socialisation)
jackson
Boys are asserting laddish identities as a way of re-developing their masculinity. These identities are anti-school and emphasise the idea that working hard is not masculine. Boys are more confident about their abilities and may think they do not need to work hard. However she found similar evidence in behaviour of ladettes.
boys gender differences in achievement
inside-teacher expectations
epstein-
Discussed the 2 explanations for male underachievement:
-Poor boy discourse - boys are seen as victims because schools run and examine to discriminate against boys
-boys will be boys discourse - teachers claim boys have a natural inclination to be boys by being lazy but naturally clever
boys gender differences in achievement
inside-teacher expectations
francis and skelton
Identify 2 further discourses:
-the ‘problem boys discourse’ - boys are seen as a problem by teachers meaning they develop anti-learning behaviour and contribute to their own underachievement.
-the ‘at-risk’ boys discourse where boys are ‘vulnerable’ and socially excluded from wider society. They are insecure with low self esteem and take refuge in hegemonic masculinity to boost their self esteem.
boys gender differences in achievement
outside-changes to job market
mac an ghaill
Macho lads faced deindustrialization and a crisis of masculinity. These changes in the job market suited the lifestyles of women and those who couldn’t gain traditional working class jobs had the option of becoming upwardly mobile, facing low paid work or unemployment. Boys didn’t have academic qualifications to move into new working class job roles.
boys gender differences in achievement
outside-changes to job market
mitsos and browne
Culture of masculinity/peer pressure/anti school subcultures in relation to class differences. Due to a difference in education and parental support:
Middle class boys wanted to go into high paid professions due to being educated and informed about career options
Working class boys had uncreative aspirations and lacked understanding of the adult world of work due to an inability to think to their futures with regards to aspirations.
global disparities- social class- the education monitoring report
found that 95% of 3-7 year olds were enrolled in pre-primary or primary school in Belarus compared to just 20% in Ethiopia, showing disparity between developed and developing countries
global disparities- social class- filmer
poverty is the most significant factor holding students back although ethnicity, gender and locality are factors which also influence educational opportunities. in somalia the national average of students never attending school is 53% but amongst the ‘poorest children’ in somalia 89% have never attended school
global disparities- gender- united nations
surveys of 61 developing countries show girls in the poorest households are excluded from education. in sub-saharan africa just 23% of girls complete primary education. in yemen 92% of the poorest girls do not complete primary education in comparison to 47% of boys. in the democratic republic of congo, 44% of girls have never been to school compared to 17% of boys
gloabl disparities- gender- north
studied education in afghanistan. there are 3.16m girls in education compared to 5.16m boys. 4.2m children get no education in afghanistan and 60% of them are girls
global disparities- gender- UNESCO
reasons for poorer countries having restricted opportunities for girls are constraints within families as girls are expected to take their roles within the domestic sphere, constraints within society as there are pressures of early marriages for girls and the threat of beliefs may discourage donation for girls
