Education: Social Class Flashcards
What is material deprivation
The lack of basic resources and opportunities
Types of material deprivation
-The hidden costs of ‘free’ schooling
-Housing conditions
-Diet and Health
-Access to educational resources
-Financial stress and student work
-Private schooling
External factors
-Material deprivation
-Cultural deprivation
Internal factors
-Labelling and self fulfilling prophecy
-streaming and setting
-subcultures
-Identity
The hidden cost of ‘free’ schooling (MD)
-Parents spend around £1,164 per year per child on things like uniforms, PE kits, trips, and materials (2013).
-This financial pressure can limit participation in school activities and lead to stigma or exclusion.
Housing conditions
-Poor housing—such as overcrowding, damp, or inadequate heating—can negatively affect a student’s health and ability to study.
-Smith and Noble (1995): Poor housing = more illness, leading to lower attendance and performance.
-Waldfogel and Washbrook (2010): Overcrowding makes it hard to concentrate or do homework, hindering learning.
Diet and Health
-Poor diet affects concentration and increases illness, which can reduce performance and attendance.
-Howard (2001): WC children more likely to suffer from poor nutrition, leading to low energy and school absences.
Access to Educational resources
-Lack of access to books, internet, or a quiet space limits learning outside of school.
-Douglas (1964): MC families provide more educational support at home, boosting achievement.
-Bernstein and Young (1967): MC parents buy educational toys and books that promote intellectual development early on.
Financial Stress and Student Work (MD)
-Working-class students may take on part-time jobs to help their families, reducing time and energy for study.
-Ridge (2002): Financial stress leads to students working part-time, which negatively affects school performance due to tiredness and time constraints.
Types of cultural deprivation
-Parental attitudes
-Subcultural explanations
-Language
Parental attitudes- Douglas (1964)
-WC parents placed less value on education, were less ambitious, and gave less encouragement to their children. They were also less likely to attend parents’ evenings or take an active interest in school life. This lack of involvement led to lower levels of motivation and achievement among WC children. In contrast, middle-class parents were more engaged and frequently visited schools, which supported better educational outcomes for their children.
Parental attitudes- Feinstein(2008)
-Parents’ own levels of education have a significant impact on a child’s achievement. MC parents, being better educated themselves, are more able to support learning at home—E.G , by reading to their children, helping with homework, or encouraging educational activities like painting or puzzles. They are also more likely to use their income to invest in their child’s education, such as buying books or paying for private tuition or schooling. This gives MC children a lasting educational advantage.
Subcultural explanations- Sugarman(1970)
-MC and WC individuals are socialised into different values and attitudes that influence their educational attainment.
-MC jobs tend to offer career progression and require qualifications, encouraging a future-time orientation (planning ahead) and deferred gratification (delaying rewards for future benefit). These values support staying in education to gain qualifications.
-WC jobs often involve low-skilled work with few opportunities for advancement, leading to a present-time orientation, immediate gratification, and fatalism—the belief that success is out of one’s control. As a result, WC students are less likely to remain in education, reinforcing social class inequalities across generations.
Language-Hubbs-Tait et al. (2002)
Parents who use complex, cognitively challenging language help boost their children’s cognitive performance and reasoning skills, leading to better academic outcomes.
Language -Feinstein
-Educated parents (mainly MC) are more likely to engage in intellectually demanding conversations, giving their children a language advantage that supports their learning.
Language-Bernstein (1975)
-MC children use elaborate code (wider vocabulary, complex sentences), which aligns with school language and gives them an academic advantage. WC children typically use restricted code, which is more limited and less suited to school expectations, making academic success harder.
Immediate gratification
wanting a reward or pleasure right away instead of waiting for a better one later.
Present time orientation
focusing on the here and now, with little consideration for the future or long-term consequences.
Fatalism
the belief that success is out of one’s control
Deferred gratification
delaying rewards for future benefit
Future time orientation
planning ahead, with an emphasis on future planning
Elaborate code
A style of language that uses complex, grammatically correct sentences, wide vocabulary, and explicit meanings.
-It does not rely on shared context to be understood.
-Commonly used by the middle class and in schools.
-Gives an advantage in formal education settings.
Restricted code
A style of language that uses shorter, simpler sentences, informal grammar, and relies on shared knowledge or context.
-Often used in everyday conversation and within close-knit groups like families or friends.
-Common among the working class.
What is cultural capital
-The knowledge, skills, education, language style, and values that give someone an advantage in society—especially in education.
(MC have more)
Economic capital
-Refers to money, property, and other material assets that a person or family owns.
Educational capital
-Refers to the qualifications and academic knowledge a person gains through education
E.G GCSEs, A-Levels, or degrees.
Social capital
refers to the networks, relationships, and connections a person has that can provide support or opportunities.
Cultural Capital- Bourdieu (1984)
The education system reproduces MC culture, giving MC children an advantage. Each class has its own habitus (cultural framework), but schools favour the MC habitus, defining what counts as valuable knowledge. MC families also benefit from different forms of capital: economic (money for resources like tutors), educational (parents’ qualifications), and cultural (language and values that match the school system).
-These forms of capital can be converted—E.G using wealth to access elite education and boost cultural capital
Sullivan (2001)- Cultural Capital
MC students with more cultural capital (like knowledge of cultural figures and watching highbrow TV) achieved better GCSE results(supports Bourdieu). However, she also noted that material factors (economic capital)played a key role in class differences, meaning cultural capital alone couldn’t fully explain educational success.
Putnam (1995)- social capital
Social capital—membership in social networks—is mainly possessed by middle-class parents, giving them an advantage in providing their children with valuable advice on schools, universities, and work placements.
What is labelling
the process whereby teachers attach names or tags to pupils.
What is the self fulfilling prophecy
when a person internalises with a label, and acts according to that label.
Which social class are more likely to be labelled negatively
Working class
Beck (1971)-labelling
Teachers judge students based on how closely they fit the image of the ‘ideal pupil’, which is shaped by conduct, appearance, and work ethic. Middle-class pupils are seen as fitting this image, while working-class pupils are often viewed as less able and more poorly behaved, leading to lower expectations and placement in lower sets or streams, making upward mobility harder.
Labelling- Rosenthal and Jacobsen (1968)
Teacher expectations can shape student performance. When teachers were told certain (randomly selected) pupils were “spurters,” those students made greater IQ gains, as teachers unknowingly gave them more support. This demonstrates the Pygmalion Effect—higher expectations lead to better outcomes as students internalised with the labels.
What is the ‘pygmalion effect’
higher expectations lead to better outcomes as students internalised with the labels.
Labelling-Dunne and Gazeley (2008)
Teachers often held negative stereotypes about WC pupils, seeing them as less able, less motivated, and more likely to misbehave. In contrast, MC pupils were viewed more positively—as bright, motivated, and cooperative. These assumptions led to differences in the support and encouragement given, with MC pupils receiving more attention and help, reinforcing educational inequalities.
Labelling- Jorgensen (2009)
Both teachers and pupils shared perceptions of the ‘ideal pupil’, typically defined as hardworking, well-behaved, and focused. These perceptions influenced how teachers treated students and how students viewed themselves as learners, often leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy—where students lived up to the expectations placed on them.
What is setting and streaming
setting” refers to grouping students by ability within specific subjects, while “streaming” involves grouping students based on overall academic ability across all subjects.
Who is more likely to be placed in lower streams
Working class
Setting and streaming- Douglas(1964)
lower-stream pupils’ IQs declined, while higher-stream pupils’ IQs increased over time. Since WC children were more likely to be in lower streams, this shows that setting and streaming contribute to class-based achievement gaps by limiting opportunities and reinforcing low expectations.
Setting and streaming- Ball(1981)
WC students were disproportionately placed in lower streams, where they were ‘cooled out’—discouraged from academic success and guided toward lower-level courses. In contrast, MC students were placed in higher streams, ‘warmed up’ with encouragement and support for academic achievement. This shows how streaming reinforces class-based inequalities in education through teacher expectations and labelling.
Setting and streaming- Keddie(1971)
Top-stream students were given high-status, academic knowledge, as teachers saw them as more capable, while lower-stream students—often WC—were given simplified, less challenging content. As a result, lower-stream pupils were denied the opportunity to succeed, showing how teacher perceptions and streaming reinforce class-based educational inequality.
Setting and streaming- Smyth et al (2006)
students in lower streams developed negative attitudes towards school, became disengaged, and felt alienated from the academic process. E.G less likely to engage with homework or school activities. This led to lower aspirations, poorer performance, and reduced engagement with homework, reinforcing the cycle of underachievement.
Subcultures- Hargreaves(1967)
identified two subcultures in schools:Conformist subcultures: Boys who worked hard and aimed for academic success.Delinquent subcultures: Boys who rejected school values and gained status through rebellious behaviour. These subcultures resulted from labelling and streaming. Boys in lower streams (those who failed the 11+) were labelled as failures, leading to status frustration. They responded by forming anti-school subcultures, achieving status through defiance and reinforcing their underachievement. This highlights how labelling and streaming contribute to the development of subcultures that perpetuate educational failure.
Subcultures- Lacey (1970)
studied how streaming and labelling lead to the formation of subcultures in schools. He identified two key processes: differentiation, where students are categorized into sets based on ability, and polarisation, where students either move towards pro-school subcultures (conforming to school values) or anti-school subcultures (rejecting school values). Lacey found that lower-streamed students often developed anti-school attitudes in response to being labelled as failures, reinforcing educational inequality and underachievement.
Differentiation
where students are categorized into sets based on ability,
Polarisation
where students either move towards pro-school subcultures (conforming to school values) or anti-school subcultures (rejecting school values).
Subcultures- Willis (1977)- ‘learning to labour’ study
Identified a group of WC boys known as ‘the lads’ who rejected the meritocratic ideals of the education system, recognizing that social mobility was unlikely for them due to systemic inequalities. In response, they engaged in defiant behaviour to gain status from their peers, prioritizing ‘having a laugh’ over academic success and reinforcing their underachievement.
The lads valued traditional WC masculinity, which emphasized toughness and manual work, while viewing intellectual pursuits as ‘feminine’ and associated with the MC. Those who conformed to school norms were labeled as ‘ear oles’.
This rejection of school values became a form of resistance and helped to prepare them for future WC roles, demonstrating how subcultures and active resistance contribute to educational underachievement and the reproduction of class inequalities.
Subcultures- Woods (1979)
Students respond to school in a variety of ways, not just as clearly pro- or anti-school. He identified eight different pupil responses. E.G compliance(following rules without enthusiasm), ingratiation (seeking teacher approval), and rebellion (visible rejection of school values),showing that student behaviour is more complex and varied. His study highlights that pupils react differently depending on their experiences, peer groups, and school environment. Hesse responses can also change overtime
Ingratiation (Woods)
seeking teacher approval
Compliance (woods)
following rules without enthusiasm
Rebellion- (woods)
visible rejection of school values
Subcultures- Ward (1973)
Not all WC boys rejected school. Many were conformist, worked hard, and valued education as a way to achieve respectable WC.
E.G He identified a group similar to the ‘lads’ called the ‘boiz’. While they rejected school in the short term, in the long term they began to value school (decline in traditional male jobs) and some even went to attend university
Subcultures- Mac an Ghail (1994)
Identified a range of male subcultures in schools, showing varied responses to education. The Academic Achievers, often WC,valued education and worked hard for success. The Real Englishmen, typically middle-class, succeeded academically but rejected hard work, valuing effortless achievement. The Macho Lads, mostly white working-class boys, formed an anti-school subculture, rejecting education in favour of toughness and future manual work. The New Enterprisers were career-focused and embraced vocational, business-oriented routes to success. This highlights how male pupils respond differently to schooling depending on their background and future aspirations.
Real Englishmen
typically middle-class, succeeded academically but rejected hard work, valuing effortless achievement.
Academic achievers (Mac and Ghail)
often WC,valued education and worked hard for success.
The macho lads
mostly white working-class boys, formed an anti-school subculture, rejecting education in favour of toughness and future manual work
New enterprisers
were career-focused and embraced vocational, business-oriented routes to success.
Identity- Archer (2010)
WC students, facing symbolic violence in schools, sought alternative ways to gain symbolic capital among their peers by embracing consumer culture, particularly through branded clothing like Nike –Archer called these ‘Nike identities’. They provided status and self-worth within their peer group but clashed with the school’s MC values and expectations, leading to conflict with teachers who often viewed them as ‘distasteful’. This further reinforced symbolic violence by devaluing WC culture and marking it as inferior.
-Crucially, these identities were also seen as incompatible with higher education, which led many WC students to self-exclude from academic opportunities that could improve their career prospects. As a result, their social mobility was limited and their educational underachievement reinforced
Habitus
a set of acquired patterns of thought, behaviour, and taste, internalised through early socialisation, that reflect the norms and values of an individual’s social class.
Symbolic violence
The way the middle class devalues working-class culture, making it seem inferior and reinforcing social inequality
Symbolic capital
Respect or status gained from having valued cultural traits like language, style, or education
What are ‘Nike identities’ (archer)
Working-class students use branded sportswear to gain status and reject school values when they feel excluded from academic success.
Identities- Ingram(2009)
WC boys in a grammar school faced a ‘clash of the habitus’ between their home identity and the school’s middle-class values. Trying to succeed meant risking rejection by their peers and feeling like they were betraying their roots. This tension made it difficult for them to fully engage with education, showing how working-class identity can limit achievement due to symbolic violence and cultural conflict.
Identities- Evans (2009)
conflict between WC identity and the MC culture of university made some WC girls hesitant to apply to higher education. They felt out of place in the academic setting and lacked the cultural capital that their MC peers had. Additionally, family expectations often encouraged them to prioritize work or domestic responsibilities, rather than pursuing further education. Consequently, many girls were reluctant to seek higher education, reinforcing social class disparities.
