Education: Social Class

Question 1

What is material deprivation

Answer 1

The lack of basic resources and opportunities

Question 2

Types of material deprivation

Answer 2

-The hidden costs of ‘free’ schooling
-Housing conditions
-Diet and Health
-Access to educational resources
-Financial stress and student work
-Private schooling

Question 3

External factors

Answer 3

-Material deprivation
-Cultural deprivation

Question 4

Internal factors

Answer 4

-Labelling and self fulfilling prophecy
-streaming and setting
-subcultures
-Identity

Question 5

The hidden cost of ‘free’ schooling (MD)

Answer 5

-Parents spend around £1,164 per year per child on things like uniforms, PE kits, trips, and materials (2013).

-This financial pressure can limit participation in school activities and lead to stigma or exclusion.

Question 6

Housing conditions

Answer 6

-Poor housing—such as overcrowding, damp, or inadequate heating—can negatively affect a student’s health and ability to study.

-Smith and Noble (1995): Poor housing = more illness, leading to lower attendance and performance.

-Waldfogel and Washbrook (2010): Overcrowding makes it hard to concentrate or do homework, hindering learning.

Question 7

Diet and Health

Answer 7

-Poor diet affects concentration and increases illness, which can reduce performance and attendance.

-Howard (2001): WC children more likely to suffer from poor nutrition, leading to low energy and school absences.

Question 8

Access to Educational resources

Answer 8

-Lack of access to books, internet, or a quiet space limits learning outside of school.

-Douglas (1964): MC families provide more educational support at home, boosting achievement.

-Bernstein and Young (1967): MC parents buy educational toys and books that promote intellectual development early on.

Question 9

Financial Stress and Student Work (MD)

Answer 9

-Working-class students may take on part-time jobs to help their families, reducing time and energy for study.

-Ridge (2002): Financial stress leads to students working part-time, which negatively affects school performance due to tiredness and time constraints.

Question 10

Types of cultural deprivation

Answer 10

-Parental attitudes
-Subcultural explanations
-Language

Question 11

Parental attitudes- Douglas (1964)

Answer 11

-WC parents placed less value on education, were less ambitious, and gave less encouragement to their children. They were also less likely to attend parents’ evenings or take an active interest in school life. This lack of involvement led to lower levels of motivation and achievement among WC children. In contrast, middle-class parents were more engaged and frequently visited schools, which supported better educational outcomes for their children.

Question 12

Parental attitudes- Feinstein(2008)

Answer 12

-Parents’ own levels of education have a significant impact on a child’s achievement. MC parents, being better educated themselves, are more able to support learning at home—E.G , by reading to their children, helping with homework, or encouraging educational activities like painting or puzzles. They are also more likely to use their income to invest in their child’s education, such as buying books or paying for private tuition or schooling. This gives MC children a lasting educational advantage.

Question 13

Subcultural explanations- Sugarman(1970)

Answer 13

-MC and WC individuals are socialised into different values and attitudes that influence their educational attainment.

-MC jobs tend to offer career progression and require qualifications, encouraging a future-time orientation (planning ahead) and deferred gratification (delaying rewards for future benefit). These values support staying in education to gain qualifications.

-WC jobs often involve low-skilled work with few opportunities for advancement, leading to a present-time orientation, immediate gratification, and fatalism—the belief that success is out of one’s control. As a result, WC students are less likely to remain in education, reinforcing social class inequalities across generations.

Question 14

Language-Hubbs-Tait et al. (2002)

Answer 14

Parents who use complex, cognitively challenging language help boost their children’s cognitive performance and reasoning skills, leading to better academic outcomes.

Question 15

Language -Feinstein

Answer 15

-Educated parents (mainly MC) are more likely to engage in intellectually demanding conversations, giving their children a language advantage that supports their learning.

Question 16

Language-Bernstein (1975)

Answer 16

-MC children use elaborate code (wider vocabulary, complex sentences), which aligns with school language and gives them an academic advantage. WC children typically use restricted code, which is more limited and less suited to school expectations, making academic success harder.

Question 17

Immediate gratification

Answer 17

wanting a reward or pleasure right away instead of waiting for a better one later.

Question 18

Present time orientation

Answer 18

focusing on the here and now, with little consideration for the future or long-term consequences.

Question 19

Fatalism

Answer 19

the belief that success is out of one’s control

Question 20

Deferred gratification

Answer 20

delaying rewards for future benefit

Question 21

Future time orientation

Answer 21

planning ahead, with an emphasis on future planning

Question 22

Elaborate code

Answer 22

A style of language that uses complex, grammatically correct sentences, wide vocabulary, and explicit meanings.

-It does not rely on shared context to be understood.
-Commonly used by the middle class and in schools.
-Gives an advantage in formal education settings.

Question 23

Restricted code

Answer 23

A style of language that uses shorter, simpler sentences, informal grammar, and relies on shared knowledge or context.

-Often used in everyday conversation and within close-knit groups like families or friends.
-Common among the working class.

Question 24

What is cultural capital

Answer 24

-The knowledge, skills, education, language style, and values that give someone an advantage in society—especially in education.

(MC have more)

Question 25

Economic capital

Answer 25

-Refers to money, property, and other material assets that a person or family owns.

Question 26

Educational capital

Answer 26

-Refers to the qualifications and academic knowledge a person gains through education E.G GCSEs, A-Levels, or degrees.

Question 27

Social capital

Answer 27

refers to the networks, relationships, and connections a person has that can provide support or opportunities.

Question 28

Cultural Capital- Bourdieu (1984)

Answer 28

The education system reproduces MC culture, giving MC children an advantage. Each class has its own habitus (cultural framework), but schools favour the MC habitus, defining what counts as valuable knowledge. MC families also benefit from different forms of capital: economic (money for resources like tutors), educational (parents’ qualifications), and cultural (language and values that match the school system). -These forms of capital can be converted—E.G using wealth to access elite education and boost cultural capital

Question 29

Sullivan (2001)- Cultural Capital

Answer 29

MC students with more cultural capital (like knowledge of cultural figures and watching highbrow TV) achieved better GCSE results(supports Bourdieu). However, she also noted that material factors (economic capital)played a key role in class differences, meaning cultural capital alone couldn’t fully explain educational success.

Question 30

Putnam (1995)- social capital

Answer 30

Social capital—membership in social networks—is mainly possessed by middle-class parents, giving them an advantage in providing their children with valuable advice on schools, universities, and work placements.

Question 31

What is labelling

Answer 31

the process whereby teachers attach names or tags to pupils.

Question 32

What is the self fulfilling prophecy

Answer 32

when a person internalises with a label, and acts according to that label.

Question 33

Which social class are more likely to be labelled negatively

Answer 33

Working class

Question 34

Beck (1971)-labelling

Answer 34

Teachers judge students based on how closely they fit the image of the ‘ideal pupil’, which is shaped by conduct, appearance, and work ethic. Middle-class pupils are seen as fitting this image, while working-class pupils are often viewed as less able and more poorly behaved, leading to lower expectations and placement in lower sets or streams, making upward mobility harder.

Question 35

Labelling- Rosenthal and Jacobsen (1968)

Answer 35

Teacher expectations can shape student performance. When teachers were told certain (randomly selected) pupils were “spurters,” those students made greater IQ gains, as teachers unknowingly gave them more support. This demonstrates the Pygmalion Effect—higher expectations lead to better outcomes as students internalised with the labels.

Question 36

What is the ‘pygmalion effect’

Answer 36

higher expectations lead to better outcomes as students internalised with the labels.

Question 37

Labelling-Dunne and Gazeley (2008)

Answer 37

Teachers often held negative stereotypes about WC pupils, seeing them as less able, less motivated, and more likely to misbehave. In contrast, MC pupils were viewed more positively—as bright, motivated, and cooperative. These assumptions led to differences in the support and encouragement given, with MC pupils receiving more attention and help, reinforcing educational inequalities.

Question 38

Labelling- Jorgensen (2009)

Answer 38

Both teachers and pupils shared perceptions of the ‘ideal pupil’, typically defined as hardworking, well-behaved, and focused. These perceptions influenced how teachers treated students and how students viewed themselves as learners, often leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy—where students lived up to the expectations placed on them.

Question 39

What is setting and streaming

Answer 39

setting" refers to grouping students by ability within specific subjects, while "streaming" involves grouping students based on overall academic ability across all subjects.

Question 40

Who is more likely to be placed in lower streams

Answer 40

Working class

Question 41

Setting and streaming- Douglas(1964)

Answer 41

lower-stream pupils’ IQs declined, while higher-stream pupils’ IQs increased over time. Since WC children were more likely to be in lower streams, this shows that setting and streaming contribute to class-based achievement gaps by limiting opportunities and reinforcing low expectations.

Question 42

Setting and streaming- Ball(1981)

Answer 42

WC students were disproportionately placed in lower streams, where they were ‘cooled out’—discouraged from academic success and guided toward lower-level courses. In contrast, MC students were placed in higher streams, ‘warmed up’ with encouragement and support for academic achievement. This shows how streaming reinforces class-based inequalities in education through teacher expectations and labelling.

Question 43

Setting and streaming- Keddie(1971)

Answer 43

Top-stream students were given high-status, academic knowledge, as teachers saw them as more capable, while lower-stream students—often WC—were given simplified, less challenging content. As a result, lower-stream pupils were denied the opportunity to succeed, showing how teacher perceptions and streaming reinforce class-based educational inequality.

Question 44

Setting and streaming- Smyth et al (2006)

Answer 44

students in lower streams developed negative attitudes towards school, became disengaged, and felt alienated from the academic process. E.G less likely to engage with homework or school activities. This led to lower aspirations, poorer performance, and reduced engagement with homework, reinforcing the cycle of underachievement.

Question 45

Subcultures- Hargreaves(1967)

Answer 45

identified two subcultures in schools:Conformist subcultures: Boys who worked hard and aimed for academic success.Delinquent subcultures: Boys who rejected school values and gained status through rebellious behaviour. These subcultures resulted from labelling and streaming. Boys in lower streams (those who failed the 11+) were labelled as failures, leading to status frustration. They responded by forming anti-school subcultures, achieving status through defiance and reinforcing their underachievement. This highlights how labelling and streaming contribute to the development of subcultures that perpetuate educational failure.

Question 46

Subcultures- Lacey (1970)

Answer 46

studied how streaming and labelling lead to the formation of subcultures in schools. He identified two key processes: differentiation, where students are categorized into sets based on ability, and polarisation, where students either move towards pro-school subcultures (conforming to school values) or anti-school subcultures (rejecting school values). Lacey found that lower-streamed students often developed anti-school attitudes in response to being labelled as failures, reinforcing educational inequality and underachievement.

Question 47

Differentiation

Answer 47

where students are categorized into sets based on ability,

Question 48

Polarisation

Answer 48

where students either move towards pro-school subcultures (conforming to school values) or anti-school subcultures (rejecting school values).

Question 49

Subcultures- Willis (1977)- ‘learning to labour’ study

Answer 49

Identified a group of WC boys known as ‘the lads’ who rejected the meritocratic ideals of the education system, recognizing that social mobility was unlikely for them due to systemic inequalities. In response, they engaged in defiant behaviour to gain status from their peers, prioritizing ‘having a laugh’ over academic success and reinforcing their underachievement. The lads valued traditional WC masculinity, which emphasized toughness and manual work, while viewing intellectual pursuits as ‘feminine’ and associated with the MC. Those who conformed to school norms were labeled as ‘ear oles’. This rejection of school values became a form of resistance and helped to prepare them for future WC roles, demonstrating how subcultures and active resistance contribute to educational underachievement and the reproduction of class inequalities.

Question 50

Subcultures- Woods (1979)

Answer 50

Students respond to school in a variety of ways, not just as clearly pro- or anti-school. He identified eight different pupil responses. E.G compliance(following rules without enthusiasm), ingratiation (seeking teacher approval), and rebellion (visible rejection of school values),showing that student behaviour is more complex and varied. His study highlights that pupils react differently depending on their experiences, peer groups, and school environment. Hesse responses can also change overtime

Question 51

Ingratiation (Woods)

Answer 51

seeking teacher approval

Question 52

Compliance (woods)

Answer 52

following rules without enthusiasm

Question 53

Rebellion- (woods)

Answer 53

visible rejection of school values

Question 54

Subcultures- Ward (1973)

Answer 54

Not all WC boys rejected school. Many were conformist, worked hard, and valued education as a way to achieve respectable WC. E.G He identified a group similar to the ‘lads’ called the ‘boiz’. While they rejected school in the short term, in the long term they began to value school (decline in traditional male jobs) and some even went to attend university

Question 55

Subcultures- Mac an Ghail (1994)

Answer 55

Identified a range of male subcultures in schools, showing varied responses to education. The Academic Achievers, often WC,valued education and worked hard for success. The Real Englishmen, typically middle-class, succeeded academically but rejected hard work, valuing effortless achievement. The Macho Lads, mostly white working-class boys, formed an anti-school subculture, rejecting education in favour of toughness and future manual work. The New Enterprisers were career-focused and embraced vocational, business-oriented routes to success. This highlights how male pupils respond differently to schooling depending on their background and future aspirations.

Question 56

Real Englishmen

Answer 56

typically middle-class, succeeded academically but rejected hard work, valuing effortless achievement.

Question 57

Academic achievers (Mac and Ghail)

Answer 57

often WC,valued education and worked hard for success.

Question 58

The macho lads

Answer 58

mostly white working-class boys, formed an anti-school subculture, rejecting education in favour of toughness and future manual work

Question 59

New enterprisers

Answer 59

were career-focused and embraced vocational, business-oriented routes to success.

Question 60

Identity- Archer (2010)

Answer 60

WC students, facing symbolic violence in schools, sought alternative ways to gain symbolic capital among their peers by embracing consumer culture, particularly through branded clothing like Nike –Archer called these ‘Nike identities’. They provided status and self-worth within their peer group but clashed with the school’s MC values and expectations, leading to conflict with teachers who often viewed them as ‘distasteful’. This further reinforced symbolic violence by devaluing WC culture and marking it as inferior. -Crucially, these identities were also seen as incompatible with higher education, which led many WC students to self-exclude from academic opportunities that could improve their career prospects. As a result, their social mobility was limited and their educational underachievement reinforced

Question 61

Habitus

Answer 61

a set of acquired patterns of thought, behaviour, and taste, internalised through early socialisation, that reflect the norms and values of an individual’s social class.

Question 62

Symbolic violence

Answer 62

The way the middle class devalues working-class culture, making it seem inferior and reinforcing social inequality

Question 63

Symbolic capital

Answer 63

Respect or status gained from having valued cultural traits like language, style, or education

Question 64

What are ‘Nike identities’ (archer)

Answer 64

Working-class students use branded sportswear to gain status and reject school values when they feel excluded from academic success.

Question 65

Identities- Ingram(2009)

Answer 65

WC boys in a grammar school faced a ‘clash of the habitus’ between their home identity and the school’s middle-class values. Trying to succeed meant risking rejection by their peers and feeling like they were betraying their roots. This tension made it difficult for them to fully engage with education, showing how working-class identity can limit achievement due to symbolic violence and cultural conflict.

Question 66

Identities- Evans (2009)

Answer 66

conflict between WC identity and the MC culture of university made some WC girls hesitant to apply to higher education. They felt out of place in the academic setting and lacked the cultural capital that their MC peers had. Additionally, family expectations often encouraged them to prioritize work or domestic responsibilities, rather than pursuing further education. Consequently, many girls were reluctant to seek higher education, reinforcing social class disparities.