Childhood Flashcards
What is meant by social construction
-Something that is not a naturally occurring phenomena in society but is created by societies
E.G gender, social norms, laws, crimes, and in this case, childhood
Name two sociologists who argue that childhood is not socially constructed (biological explanation)
-Pilcher (1995)
-James and Sprout (1997)
How does Pilcher (1995) argue that childhood is not a social construct
Pilcher argues that childhood is a clear and distinct life stage, separate from adulthood, shown through:
Social separateness:
• Different spaces for children (e.g., playgrounds, schools).
• Special treasures (toys, children’s items).
• Specific rules for children.
Physical separateness:
• Children’s physical immaturity (bodies and abilities are not fully developed).
Psychological separateness:
• Differences in brain development.
This perspective implies that childhood is not socially constructed, but biologically and socially distinct.
How do James and Sprout (1997) argue that childhood is not a social construct
-Children are seen as simple and incomplete because they haven’t yet developed the complex and sophisticated ways of acting and interacting like adults. Children are viewed as fragile and amoral (without strong morals yet), and they see the world in black and white terms. In contrast, adults are seen as complex and moral, capable of understanding the complexity and nuances of situations.
This framework highlights how society often positions childhood as a time of immaturity compared to adulthood.
Two sociologists that argue that childhood is socially constructed
-Wagg
-Aries
What is meant by historical relativity
-Childhood is socially constructed and has varied greatly across different eras and societies. What people consider to be “normal” or “appropriate” for children—such as their roles, responsibilities, rights, and behaviors—changes depending on historical circumstances.
According to Aries what was childhood like in the Middle Ages
-Aries argues that in the Middle Ages the idea of childhood did not even exist. Children were seen as ‘mini adults’ and there was no clear distinction between the two other than the fact that children were smaller. For example, children and adults wore the same clothes, went to work, children didn’t have toys (no separate experiences) etc.
-Furthermore, children were seen as ‘economic assets’ as the family was a unit of production and so families often had large family sizes with any children.
-There were also high infant mortality rates and so mothers were encouraged not to become too attached to their children.
According to Aries (1960) what was childhood like during the Industrial era
-There was little change from the medieval too the industrial era in regard to the position of childhood
-There was still little difference between adult and child culture. Children were still viewed as economic assets, with some being sent to work as early as the age of 7. For example, cotton picking, chimney sweeping etc were common jobs for children as they were smaller so could fit under machines and inside chimneys. However,middle class children now tended to attend education rather than go to work.
(Children exploited)
According to Aries how has childhood improved to be how it is today
-In todays society childhood is seen as a special and unique time in life shaped by innocence and the need to be protected
-Children and adults now have separate culture, wearing different clothes, for example, character clothing for children, and also separate socialising spaces, for sample, the pub for adults, and playgrounds for children.
-Childhood has now also been prolonged due to the delay of children entering work and instead making education compulsory until the age of 18. This has meant that child innocence is preserved and children are not forced to grow up too quickly as they are dependent on their parents for longer.
What is meant by ‘economic assets’ (Aries)
-Children were viewed as advantageous for making money. Family often use them for work to benefit from their income .
How did Aries research historical experiences of childhood
-Through historical paintings
Evidence that supports Aries view that childhood did not exist
-Children were married as early as age 12
-Punishments were the same for adults and children (no parental responsibility)
-During the industrial era children were exploited by work places and often used for jobs like cotton picking and chimney sweeping, which were often very dangerous (not protected)
According to the ILO (2013) there were _______ child workers in 2012
-168 million
According to Wyness (2012), in Bangladesh children as young as ____ work as sex workers using forged papers
11 or 12
What is the March of progress view of childhood
-Argues that childhood has significantly improved overtime. Children today are more valued, protected, nurtured than previous generations due to things like legal protections, education and better healthcare.
Who supports the March of Progress view of childhood
Aries
Social policies that have contributed to improving the position of childhood (evidence)
-The Children’s Act (1989, 2004)
-The Every Child Matters Agenda (2003)
-The Marriage and Civil Partnership Act (2022)
-9PM Watershed
-Social media age 12+
-Legal driving age 17+
-Age of Criminal responsibility 10+
-Legal age of consent 16+
-Legal age of busting alcohol and nicotine 18+
Children’s Act (1989, 2004)
-Established legal rights for children, prioritising their welfare in family courts and child protection services. Also defines parental responsibility rather than rights
The Every Child Matters Agenda (2003)
-Aimed to ensure children were healthy, safe and achieving their potential
The Marriage and Civil Partnership Act 2022
-Raised the minimum legal age of marriage form 16 to 18 (prolonging innocence and childhood/ parental dependency )
The 9PM Watershed
-Banning of adult themes being shown on the television before 9PM
E.G violence, guns, strong language, sex etc
Limitation of the 9PM watershed
-New technology such as ‘recording’ on television enables children to still have access to these restrictions
-Videogames such as GTA, exposes children to violence and adult themes
However, Netflix etc Parental controls
According to Cunningham (2006) what effect have the social policies regarding protecting children had on the position of childhood
-Argues that these policies reflect the rise of a ‘child centred society’ where children’s needs are prioritised
The Factory Acts (1847)
Limited children’s working hours and banned employment under a certain age (protecting children from exploitation)
The Education Act (1880)
-Made school attendance mandatory, reducing child labour
Examples of changes to social attitudes int he 19th century towards child labour
Campaigns by reformers such as Lord Shaftesbury in the 19th century highlighted the dangers of child labour, leading to legal protections
Evaluation of restrictions to child labour in UK
-While Western societies have restricted child labour and exploitations, it still remains a significant problem in poorer, pre industrial societies, where millions of children still work in dangerous conditions
The Forster Educaton Act 1870
-Introduced compulsory education in England and Wales up until age 11
The Butler Education Act 1944
-Established free secondary education for everyone until age 15
Whe did the school leaving age increase to 18
2015
Impact of FSM on the position of children
-Improved children’s well being by addressing poverty and hunger to help close the gap between children in attainment
Safety measures introduced in schools (ensure protection of children )
-DBS checks
-Safeguarding
Factors that have improved the position of childhood/ children
-Social policies
-Improvements in the workplace
-Improvements in education
-Medical advancements
What is he maximum working hours for 16 year olds
12 hours per week
Examples of medical advancements that have improved the position of children
Establishment of the NHS 1944-
-Emergence of Paediatrics as a medical field- specialised doctors.
-Vaccinations
-Rise/ normalisation of hospital births (1960s)
-Maternity wards
-Free prescriptions for all children in full time education
-Availability of contraception- families can plan when they have children, ensuring that they can plan and provide for them when they do decide to have a child. This enables them a better quality of life
-All of these have led to the reduction in child mortality rates and children having a much better quality of life
How has the infant mortality rate changed since 1900
-1900-154 per 1000 births
-Today- 4 per 1000 births
Further evidence of a child centred society
- Higher levels of parental spending on children’s well being, education and leisure activities has led to the growth of child friendly consumer culture E.G media, toys, entertainment industries that cater specifically to children - ‘Pester power’ (Marxism)- marketing agencies target children via the media. E.G Pester power costs the avg family £1700 a year and £227,000 by the reach age 21
-Smaller family sizes- parents can invest more attention and money into their child (AOC). Also greater emotional investment into children as parents prioritise their children’s happiness and development
How many children did the average family have in 1860
6
Average number of children per family today
2
Is the child liberationist view of childhood a consensus or conflict view
Conflict view
How do child liberationists criticise the march of progress view of childhood
March of progress view is ‘rose tinted’
-There are inequalities among children- in terms of the opportunities and risks they face: many today remain unprotected and uncared for
-The inequalities between children and adults- children today experience greater control, oppression and dependency, not greater care and protection
Examples of intra-child conflict (inequalities between children)
-Gender differences between children (boys and girls have different levels of social control)
-Ethnic differences between children
-Class differences between children
Evidence from sociologists of gender inferences between children
-Hilman (1993)- boys are more likely to be allowed to cross or cycle on roads, use buses and go out after dark unaccompanied
-Bonke (1999)- girls do more domestic labour- especially in lone parent families, where girls are found to do 5X more housework than boys
-Heidenson- girls have greater social control due to fear of assault portrayed by the media
What is meant by girls adopt a ‘bedroom culture’
-Girls are encouraged to stay at home and engage in domestic work, rather than going out, and have stricter curfews
Evidence from sociologists of ethnic differences between children
-Brannen’s (1994)study of 15-16 year olds fond that Asian parents were more likely than other parents to be strict to their daughters
-Bhatti (1999)- found that ideas of izzat (family honour) could be a restriction, particularly on the behaviour of girls
Evidence from sociologists of class differences between children
-BBC found that poor children are 2.5% more likely to suffer from a chronic illness
-Howard (2001)- Children born into poor families are more likely to die in infancy
What perspective are Firestone and Holt (1970s) from
Child liberationists
Firestone and Holt (1970s) - Adult control over children
-Children are oppressed by adults restricting their freedoms, under the guise of ‘protection’. For example, children are forced into compulsory education, denying them the power of decision making, making them financially dependent on adults for longer. This give adults more control over children and how they live their life.
What term does Gittens (1998) use to describe the inequalities between adults and children
‘Age patriarchy’- adults dominate children, limiting their freedoms.
Ways in which adult control over children can take place
-Child abuse
-Control over children’s space
-Control over children’s resources
-Control over time
-Control over bodies
According to the NSPCC (2011) how many children are abused b a parent or guardian
1 in 5 children
According to the DfE (2013) how many children are subject to child protection orders
-According to the DfE nearly 43,100 children were subject to child protection orders
What is meant by helicopter parents
Parents that hover around their children removing all independence from the child by solving their problems
Examples of ways adults control children’s spaces
-Children are told to play in areas and forbidden to play in others. E.G ‘Don’t go past the red bricks’
-Increasingly close surveillance over children in public spaces, like shopping centres, schools etc. For example, tracking apps, air tags, CCTV
-Fears about road safety and ‘stranger danger’ have reduced children’s independence
In 1971, what was the percentage of primary school children that were allowed to walk home on their own compared to 2010
1971- 86% of PS children were allowed to travel from school alone
2010- 25% of PS children were allowed to travel from school alone
Cunningham (2007) ‘home habitat’
-The ‘home habitat’ of 8 year old (the area in which they are able to travel alone) has shrunk to one-ninth of the size it was 25years earlier
Furedi (2001) ‘paranoid parenting’
-Modern society has developed an excessive fear of risks to children, particularly from strangers, leading to an overprotective approach to parenting, called ‘paranoid parenting’. This fear has been fuelled by factors such as the media, which exaggerates dangers such as, ‘stranger danger’. These fears and parenting approach restricts children’s independence and so they foster a sense of vulnerability rather than resilience, and so they are further forced to be dependent on their adults.
How did adults control children’s resources (finances)
-Children have limited opportunities to earn money, and so they remain economically dependent on adults. Even when they do have the opportunity, their earning power is restricted by things like the National Minimum wage and restrictions on working hours, and so they do not earn as much as adults.
-Child benefit goes to the parent not the child
-Pocket money given by parents depends on ‘good behaviour’ and there may be restrictions on what it is spent on
How do adults control time
-Adult control over daily routines- when they get up, go to sleep, eat, go to school, shower, etc
How do adults control children’s bodies
-Adults exercise enormous control over children’s bodies- how they sit, walk, dress, etc.
Eval
-Young children are not able to do this themselves so adult control is necessary.
Pugh- consumption view of childhood
-Parents use ‘consumption as compensation’ because they are ‘cash rich, time poor’- They are unable to give the attention and time to their children that they would like to give them due to factors like work, and so they compensate for this in the form of consumerism. They buy their children good like gadgets, toys, snacks and entertainment to feel less guilty about not being able to fulfil their child’s desires.
Postman (1994) -Disappearance of childhood
-In the 19th century, printed words created an information hierarchy between adults, who can read, and children, who cannot read, giving adults the power to keep knowledge of ‘adult matters’ secret from children. Childhood is therefore associated with innocence and ignorance. Childhood is disappearing due to technological changes, particularly the rise of television and the internet, which has led to a breakdown of the information hierarchy, blurring the lines between adulthood and childhood. As a result, children are being exposed to adult themes , such as sex and violence, as children can now access information without adult guidance
Evidence to support the disappearance of childhood
-Increased crime among children- There is a higher crime rate for people aged 14-24 years old (video games, GTA etc)
-Uk has a higher teenage pregnancy rate compared to other parts of Europe
-Increase alcohol and substance misuse in children- E.G vapes among school children- marketed towards teens with fun colours and flavours
-Appearance- how children look and act- Beauty standards presented on the media are toxic- decrease in mental health
-Phones
How does Opie (1993) criticise Postman and the disappearance of childhood
-Children still have their own separate culture, such as separate TV channels and programmes- Nickelodeon and CBeebies. They also have separate games and songs.
Other criticisms (not Opie)
-New technology is not all bad- parental controls allows adults to restrict access to adult themes
According Ofcom what is the percentage of 9-11year olds that have smart phones
-91%
Palmer (2006)- Toxic Childhood
-Rapid technological and cultural changes in the past 25 years have damaged children’s physical, emotional and intellectual development- As a result, children are experiencing ‘toxic childhood’.
-These changes range from junk food, computer games, long working hours for parents, growing emphasis on testing in education.
Dixon (2006) Evidence for toxic childhood
-UK youth are at or near the top of the international league tables for obesity, self harm, drug and alcohol abuse, violence, early sexual experiences and teenage pregnancies
According to a UNICEF survey n2007 where is the UK internationally ranked for children’s wellbeing
21 out of 25
Evidence to support ‘toxic cildhood’
Physical
-27% children aged 2-25 years old are overweight or obese according to the NHS
-Lack of exercise, junk food video games= increase in child obesity
Emotional
-Increase in mental healthy concern sin children
-Overstretched CAMHS
-1 in 6 suffer from depression
-A UNICEF survey in 2013 ranked the UK 16th out of 29 for children’s wellbeing
Intellectual
-The pressures associated with extreme testing
On average, how many hours a day are 8-18 year olds spending on their phones each day
-7 hours per day
Jenks (2005)- children in Postmodernity (impact of destabilisation of identity)
People no longer have a secure grounded sense of who they are. In the past, the wife/ husband was the important primary relationship in the family, however, in postmodernity relationships are more insecure than ever due to the rising divorce rate, raising standards due to the media etc. As a result of this, parents now attach more importance to their relationship with their child as this is seen as more permanent (biological). This further supports the continuation of the childcentered society
Evidence to support the disappearance of childhood
-Increased crime among children- For example, there is a higher crime rate for the age group 14-24. (Videogames, GTA)
-Uk has a high rate of teenage pregnancy compared to other parts of Europe
-Increased alcohol and substance issue in children- E.g vapes among school children- marketed towards teens with fun colours and flavours
-Appearance- how children look and act- beauty standards presented in the media
How does Opie (1993) criticise Postman (disappearance of childhood)
-Children still have their own separate culture. For example, separate TV channels and programmes, such as Nickelodeon and CBeebies. They also have separate games and and songs. Furthermore, new technology is not all bad- parental controls can be used to restrict access to adult themes
According to Ofcom, how many 9-1 year olds own a smart phone
91%
Palmer (2006) -Toxic childhood
-Rapid technological and cultural changes the past 25years have damaged children’s physical, emotional; and intellectual development, resulting in children in the UK now experiencing a ‘toxic childhood’.
-For example, junk food, computer games, long hours worked by parents and growing emphasis on testing in education
Dixon (2006)
-The UK youth are ranked at or near the top of international league tables for obesity, self harm, drug abuse, violence and early sexual experiences and teen pregnancies.
According to a UNICEF survey in 2007 where is the UK ranked for children’s wellbeing
-21 out of 25
Evidence to support ‘Toxic childhood’
-Physical-
