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Anatomy & Physiology 12 > DNA AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS TEST REVIEW > Flashcards

DNA AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS TEST REVIEW Flashcards

1
Q

DNA

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid, a polymer of nucleotides which are formed by dehydration synthesis. It is the UNITY of life

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2
Q

3 major functions of DNA

A

Controls cellular activities, DNA replication, and undergoes mutations

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3
Q

Significance of codes in DNA

A

Genetic information are encoded in the sequence of bases strung together in DNA

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4
Q

XX chromosome

A

Female

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5
Q

XY chromosome

A

Male

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6
Q

Two types of nucleic acids

A

DNA and RNA

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7
Q

Mutations

A

Mistakes during DNA replication

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8
Q

Significance of mutations

A

Different combinations of DNA sequences due to mutations and sexual reproduction explain the existence of all the different species that have lived on earth, creating diversity

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9
Q

First form of life on planet

A

Self-replicating strand of RNA, such as a virus

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10
Q

Who discovered DNA double helix

A

James Watson and Francis Crick

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11
Q

DNA and RNA are polymers of ___

A

Nucleotides

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12
Q

What is composed in a nucleotide

A
  • 5 carbon pentose sugar (deoxyribose/ribose)
  • Phosphate group
  • Nitrogen base
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13
Q

Two types of bases

A

Purines and pyrimidines

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14
Q

Differences between purines and pyrimidines

A

Purines have a double carbon ring structure whereas pyrimidines have a single carbon ring structure.

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15
Q

Purines

A

Adenine and guanine

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16
Q

Pyrimidines

A

Thymine, cytosine, and uracil (RNA only)

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17
Q

DNA strand explanation

A

Sequence of nucleotides linked together by synthesis to form double helix. Each strand composed of backbone of alternating phosphate group and deoxyribose molecules with nitrogen base attached to the sugar unit

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18
Q

Anti-parallel

A

One side of DNA molecule is 5’ to 3’. The other side is upside down running from 3’ to 5’

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19
Q

Bonds holding the strands

A

Hydrogen bonds. The bases stick out the side of sugar molecules and are linked to bases of other strand

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20
Q

Complementary base pairing

A

Purine with a pyrimidine. Adenine bonds with thymine (2 hydrogen bonds) and guanine bonds with cytosine (3 hydrogen bonds)

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21
Q

Chargaff’s rule

A

Number of purine bases are always equal to the number of pyrimidine bases

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22
Q

Significance of sequence of bases

A

Codes heredity information in genetic code in DNA and RNA

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23
Q

Are DNA strands long

A

Yes

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24
Q

How long is a DNA strand stretched and how many pairs of bases

A

About 6 feet long and 3.2 billion pairs of bases

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25
Q

Human genome project

A

Project from 1990. Wanted to determine the sequence of bases that make up a human’s genetic code and then in 2003, they cracked the code

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26
Q

Genes

A

Units of inheritance that control characteristics of an organism.

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27
Q

Where are genes located

A

Chromosomes of the cell nucleus and consist of segments of DNA molecule

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28
Q

Genes consist of how many DNA base-pairs

A
  1. About 175,000 genes compose the DNA molecule of a single human chromosome.
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29
Q

What does it mean when a gene occurs in pairs

A

Half of each person’s genes come from the mother and half from father. Combinations of different genes determine the characteristics of the organism

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30
Q

What do genes control and examples

A

Cellular chemical reactions by directing the formation of proteins such as insulin or glucagon

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31
Q

Histones

A

Proteins that keep chromosomes tightly coiled

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32
Q

Before a cell can divide, it must ____

A

Duplicate

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33
Q

Replication + process

A

The duplication process. Each strand viewed as a template and can produce a “reverse image” copy. Each new strand of DNA produced has a sequence of bases that are exactly complementary to the template strand

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34
Q

Two strands of DNA

A

Daughter/leading strand (new copied DNA and lagging strand

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35
Q

Why does the leading strand copy faster

A

Copies DNA from 5’ to 3’ direction

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36
Q

Why is lagging strand slower

A

Old DNA molecules needs to continue to unwind and will take longer since it goes the opposite direction

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37
Q

Semi conservative replication

A

When each new strand of DNA produced contains one “old” strand (the template) and the one new strand

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38
Q

How is accuracy of replication evident

A

Half the original molecule is conserved in each of the new molecules which ensures that there will be very accurate replication of the parent molecule

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39
Q

Helicase

A

Enzyme that breaks the hydrogen bonds between DNA strands

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40
Q

DNA Polymerase

A

Enzyme that proof reads for any errors

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41
Q

Overall process of replication

A

Helicase enzyme breaks the hydrogen bonds between the two strands of DNA. The double helix unwinds and the two strands of DNA separate. The new nucleotides from nucleoplasm move in to complementary pair up with bases of the template strand at a rate of 50-500 nucleotides per second. Hydrogen bonds form with an enzyme called DNA polymerase, as it gets proof read. Sugar phosphate bonds form between nucleotides of new strand and the new molecule winds up into a double helix

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42
Q

RNA

A

How DNA communicates its message. Genetic material of some viruses that are necessary in organisms for protein synthesis to occur. Could have been the original nucleic acid when life first arose on earth

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43
Q

Does RNA contain nucleotides

A

Yes

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44
Q

RNA nucleotides

A

5 carbon sugar (ribose), phosphate group attached to one end of sugar molecule, and one of several different nitrogen bases linked to opposite end of ribose.

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45
Q

RNA nitrogen bases

A

Adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil instead of thymine to pair with adenine

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46
Q

RNA structure

A

Single stranded, not a double helix like DNA

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47
Q

3 types of RNA

A

Ribosomal RNA, messenger RNA, transfer RNA

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48
Q

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) (4):

A
  • Made by the nucleolus and migrates to cytoplasm through pores of nuclear envelope
  • 2 rRNA subunits combine with protein to form ribosomes found on rough ER and throughout cytoplasm
  • Aids in protein synthesis by reading mRNA codon
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49
Q

Messenger RNA (mRNA):

A
  • Made by copying sections of DNA

- Template strand (a gene) by a process called transcription (contains codons which are triplet of nitrogen bases)

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50
Q

Transfer RNA (tRNA) (4):

A
  • Able to recognize a very specific amino acid by using anti codon.
  • Carries amino acid from cytoplasm to ribosome for protein synthesis
51
Q

Two major process which occurs in order for protein to be made

A

DNA copied through transcription into mRNA used in translation to build a protein

52
Q

Transcription

A

Process of making an RNA copy of a gene sequence. mRNA leaves nucleus and enters cytoplasm where it directs protein synthesis

53
Q

Enzyme used in transcription of RNA

A

RNA polymerase

54
Q

Steps in translation (6):

A
  • Hydrogen bonds break and specific section of DNA unzips (gene) to expose a set of bases
  • On one strand of DNA (sense strand), complementary RNA bases are brought in like uracil pairing with adenine on DNA. The other strand of DNA is not used by mRNA in eukaryotic cells
  • Adjacent RNA nucleotides from covalent bonds between sugar-phosphate
  • mRNA strand released from DNA (RNA is single stranded)
  • DNA molecule rewinds and reforms hydrogen bonds to return to double helix
  • mRNA leaves nucleus through nuclear pore and goes into cytoplasm or the Rough ER
55
Q

Where does transcription occur

A

Nucleus

56
Q

Codon

A

3 letter unit of nucleotides which codes for one amino acid

57
Q

How many codons

A

64 in total. 61 codes for specific amino acids and the remaining 3 are the stop codons

58
Q

Anti-codon

A

Base sequence that is complementary to the codon and is found on transfer RNA (tRNA)

59
Q

Translation RNA

A

mRNA used to build a protein. Translates the codons on mRNA into sequence of amino acids to form a primary polypeptide structure

60
Q

3 subunits of translation process

A

initiation, elongation, and termination

61
Q

Initiation in translation (3):

A
  • Small rRNA subunit attaches to start codon (AUG) on mRNA
  • tRNA with an anti-codon UAC complimentary base pair with codon. This tRNA carries specific amino acid called methionine
  • Larger rRNA subunit joins with small subunit
62
Q

If there are 20 different types of amino acids, there are 20 types of tRNA, why?

A

Each specific type of tRNA codes for specific amino acid

63
Q

Does tRNA use energy

A

Yes. It uses ATP to pick up amino acids from cytoplasm

64
Q

Elongation

A

More amino acids added and connected together to form polypeptide, as specified by mRNA sequence. An incoming amino-tRNA recognizes the next codon and complementary binds there

65
Q

Elongation process (7):

A
  • Peptide bond is formed between new amino acid 2 and the first amino acid 1
  • Amino acid is removed from tRNA1 so the bond breaks between amino acid 1 and tRNA 1
  • tRNA 1 is released and tRNA 2 shifts over to the site previously occupied by tRNA 1
  • Ribosomes move over one codon along mRNA in 5’ to 3’ direction
  • Movement shifts the tRNA 2 over which is attached to the growing amino acid chain
  • tRNA 3 with amino acid 3 can move on and bind with next codon on mRNA
  • Process repeats and chain elongates
66
Q

How many amino acids form a peptide bond every second

A

10-20

67
Q

Termination

A

Repeats special codon called stop codon. Stop codons do not code for amino acids but instead act as signals to stop translation

68
Q

3 stop codons

A

UAA, UAG, UGA

69
Q

Termination process (4):

A
  • Protein called release factor binds directly to stop codon. Release factor causes water molecules to be added to end of polypeptide chain and the chain separates from the last tRNA
  • Protein is complete and ready to form a secondary helix structure
  • mRNA is broken down with lysosome and ribosome dissociates into large and small subunits
  • New protein sent for processing and packaging by rough ER and golgi through secretory vesicles and goes to cell membrane to leave through exocytosis
70
Q

Polyribosome

A

When many ribosomes simultaneously transcribe the same mRNA and therefore many copies of the same protein can be made quickly

71
Q

How many proteins can be synthesized if the materials (nucleotides, amino acids, etc) are available

A

100,000

72
Q

RNA polymerase

A

Enzyme that proof reads the chain because there are always mistakes in 1 in every 30 polypeptide chain

73
Q

Genetic mutation

A

a permanent alteration in the nucleotide sequence of one or more genes. If nucleotides are arranged, deleted, added, it could lead to a non-functional protein

74
Q

Mutation

A

Change in an organism resulting from chemical change in structure of gene. They are inheritable

75
Q

American geneticist

A

Herman Muller. In 1927, he developed experiment to study how mutations occur

76
Q

Mutagens and examples

A

Factors that can cause mutations, ex. UV light, cigarette smoke, x-ray, etc

77
Q

3 types of mutagens and examples:

A
  • Chemical mutagens: food preservatives, cigarette smoke, acetone
  • Radiation: UV lights, x-ray, gamma rays
  • Viral mutagens: cervical cancer patients, zika, HPV
78
Q

Carcinogen

A

Mutagens that cause cancer. They cause cells to undergo mitosis uncontrollably resulting in tumors

79
Q

Somatic mutations and example

A

Occur in body cells after birth, ex. Cancer

80
Q

Germinal mutations and example

A

Mutations of gametes (egg/sperm) of early in development of embryo, ex. Dwarfism, diabetes

81
Q

2 main categories of mutations:

A
  • Gene mutations: affects only one gene; small scale effects
  • Chromosomal mutations: affects multiple genes because they affect entire chromosome or part of chromosomes; huge effects
82
Q

Types of gene mutations (3)

A
  • Substitution: One gene (nucleotide) are substituted for another nucleotide
  • Addition: Nucleotide is added
  • Deletion: Nucleotide is deleted
83
Q

Sickle cell impact on body

A

Sickle cell block the veins and arteries. As fewer and fewer normal red blood cells can pass through congested blood vessels, the tissue and cells become starved for oxygen and other nutrients

84
Q

How can substitution mutations be functional

A

Although it can be useless in the human body, sometimes the mutation will create a functional protein because some codon will still code for the same amino acid

85
Q

Chromosomal mutations

A

Occur after chromosomes are broken due to exposure in drugs, radiations, etc and reform abnormally. Pieces of chromosomes can be lost, added, or whole chromosomes can be lost or added

86
Q

Types of chromosomal mutations (4):

A
  • Inversion: Changes spatial relationships between element controlling genes
  • Translocation: Impairs genetic control of cell and could lead to cancer
  • Duplication: Often beneficial. Frees up extra of certain genes to mutate and increase evolutionary complexity. However, it can lead to cancer by producing too much protein
  • Deletion: Cells loses ability to produce needed proteins such as enzymes needed for metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates, or lipids
87
Q

Recombining DNA

A

DNA from one specie (Green coding for protein insulin) is inserted into DNA of a second specie (ex. Bacteria). The specie can then go on to produce proteins of the first specie and when it reproduces, it will copy the other species DNA and pass it onto offspring. The gene is cloned by allowing bacteria to multiply

88
Q

Effects of recombining DNA on earth

A

Allowed production of rare proteins in large quantities. Human gene therapy helps control and cure genetic disorders by isolating, modifying, and reinserting DNA sequences

89
Q

Cloning genes

A

viruses and bacteria can be used to make copies of gene of another species. Huge amounts of any piece of DNA can now be made using technique called the Polymerase Chain Reaction

90
Q

Biotechnology products

A

Whole organisms can now be clone biotechnology products. Genetically engineered prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells can be used to mass-produce once rare medical proteins, hormones, and vaccines to prevent disease

91
Q

Pro of recombinant DNA and examples

A

Allows us to produce large number of resources that are usually only present in small quantities. Ex. Human growth hormone, insulin, tpa

92
Q

Insulin (Recombinant DNA)

A

Used to only come from pancreatic glands of cows and pigs but now can be cloned in human DNA

93
Q

TPA (Recombinant DNA)

A

Tissue plasminogen activator. A protein that activates an enzyme that dissolves blood clots used to dissolve coronary blood clots of heart attack victims

94
Q

What other things can biotechnology products treat (4):

A
  • Cancer
  • Anemia
  • Respiratory distress syndrome
  • High blood pressure
95
Q

Vector and example

A

Something that can get the DNA from one species into the other species DNA. Ex. Plasmid, a circular piece of DNA found in some bacteria

96
Q

Process of recombinant DNA

A

Human gene is inserted into plasmid and is taken up by bacteria. The bacteria reproduce the plasmid along with its own DNA when it reproduces, and translates the human gene, producing human protein

97
Q

What biochemicals are contained in chromosomes

A

Nucleic acids, proteins

98
Q

Compare and contrast gene and chromosomes

A

Genes are in chromosomes. Each gene contains its own specific DNA

99
Q

What holds two strands of DNA together

A

Hydrogen bonds

100
Q

What is meant by complementary base pairing

A

When purine binds with a pyrimidine (A with T, G with C)

101
Q

3 functions of DNA:

A
  • Stores information that controls development
  • Stores information that controls metabolic activity of cell
  • Stores information to build proteins or lipids
102
Q

Why is it necessary to replicate DNA in cell

A

Each daughter cell has exact copy of DNA which can be transmitted in gametes from 1 generation to the next

103
Q

What is a template strand

A

Mold or blueprint used to produce a shape opposite to itself

104
Q

5 major steps of DNA replication:

A
  • Helicase breaks hydrogen bonds causing DNA to unwind
  • DNA polymerase brings DNA nucleotides to parent DNA to undergo complementary base pairing
  • DNA polymerase proofreads new DNA strand
  • New DNA strand links sugar-phosphate backbone by synthesis
  • DNA molecule zips back up having 2 identical DNA molecules
105
Q

Semi-conservative process

A

New DNA molecule has 50% old (parent strand DNA) + 50% new (new strand DNA

106
Q

Gene and enzyme relationship

A

Genes contain a specific DNA segment that contain blue prints to create a specific type of enzyme

107
Q

mRNA function

A

Copies the instructional blueprints from DNA for instructions to build protein

108
Q

How does mRNA take message from DNA to cytoplasm

A

Using ATP energy mRNA is transported to cytoplasm

109
Q

mRNA and ribosome relationship

A

Ribosomes attach to a start codon to begin process of building a protein

110
Q

How much of the DNA molecule does the mRNA copy

A

Copies a specific section on DNA segment that has instructions to build a protein

111
Q

Stop codons

A

UAA, UAG, UGA

112
Q

Start codon

A

AUG

113
Q

What are ribosomes composed of

A

2 subunits of protein + rRNA

114
Q

How is rRNA made

A

DNA has a specific instructional blueprint in gene for instruction to make rRNA in nucleolus

115
Q

Function of rRNA

A

Uses anticodon to pick up and transport amino acids to mRNA

116
Q

Why is ATP needed for mRNA

A

To pick up and transport amino acids to mRNA

117
Q

Function of anticodon

A

Reads the mRNA codon to allow tRNA to bind to a specific codon site on mRNA

118
Q

How many tRNAs fit on a ribosome at once

A

2

119
Q

How do polysomes work

A

Several ribosomes can move along 1 mRNA at once. Multiple copies of proteins are done at one time

120
Q

Summary of protein synthesis steps

A
  • DNA contains series of bases that serve as triplet code
  • During transcription, one strand of DNA serves as template for formation of mRNA
  • mRNA goes into cytoplasm and becomes associated with ribosomes
  • tRNA molecules have anti codons that pair complementary mRNA codons
  • As ribosomes move along mRNA, newly arrived tRNA/amino acids receive growing polypeptide chain from tRNA.
121
Q

Cause of down syndrome

A

Translocation mutation. Occurs before birth where you get an exchange of parts of chromosomes

122
Q

If a single nucleotide base is changed in a DNA sequence, what might the result be

A

Possibly a functional protein but more likely a protein created which is non-functional

123
Q

What hosts are generally used in recombinant DNA

A

Bacteria, viruses, human genes

124
Q

Examples of recombinant DNA (4):

A
  • Cloning genes
  • Producing biotechnology products (Insulin, TPA)
  • Making transgenic organisms
  • Gene therapy

Anatomy & Physiology 12 (10 decks)

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