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development Flashcards

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1
Q

issues in developmental psychology

A
  • Nature and nurture
  • Continuities and discontinuities
  • The passive and active child
  • Longitudinal stability and influence
  • Individual differences
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2
Q

empircism

A

watson - little albert and phobias - hands on - controlling - make sure they learn things

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3
Q

extreme nativism

A

gesell, the child grows in the direction of evolution - hands off because they believe its in their genes - lack of involvement - just physical needs met for their development

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4
Q

discountinous child development

A

Freuds psychosexual stages, Piagets theory of cognitive development

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5
Q

continuous child development

A

bandura SLT

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6
Q

the passive child

A

do they just get moudled by the world around them

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7
Q

the active child

A

do children use the world around them to determine and contruct their understanding of the world

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8
Q

longintudinal stability and influence

A

do certain developmental constructs remain stable over time?

do certain developmental constructs predict later development - attachment style?

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9
Q

how do we study development?

A
  • Methodological problems
  • The ‘data problem’
  • Establishing causal relations
  • Choosing the ‘right’ age
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10
Q

methodological problems of studying development

A
  • children aren’t reliable PP
  • cant talk
  • development is noisy - influeced by a range of factors
  • ethical considerations
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11
Q

the data problem

A
  • use of natural observations makes it difficult to obtain quantitiave data which is easier to analyse
  • natural environments differ per child
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12
Q

the developmental task

A

rather than observation come up with task and give to child and see if they can complete

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13
Q

unexepected transfer task

A

asses theory of mind - will the child be able to recognise that someone will look for something if thats where they think it is

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14
Q

issues of causation with developmental research

A

how to move from a description of how the mind develops to an explanation of what causes these changes.

  1. establish direction of cause
  2. there may be a third factor
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15
Q

how to overcome issues with causal relations

A
  • Allows researchers to manipulate an independent variable while measuring a dependent variable, while controlling for confounding variables
  • Manipulations can be done in the lab, or in the child’s natural environment
  • Best way of establishing cause in development
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16
Q

choosing the right age

A
  • tasks need to be suited to their age and capabilities
  • if you want loads of ages how do you make task suit all of them
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17
Q

44 thieves study

A

studied children who were criminals and their attachment

children after WW2 how much had they suffered from maternal deprivation

thought attachment was an important construct that needed to be researched further

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18
Q

the accepted wisdom of attachment

A

formed an attachment as a byproduct of being with people who kept you alive and safe. attachment is a secondary drive

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19
Q

primary attachment behaviours

A

crying clinging smiling frowning
these behaviours are innate try build an attachment

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20
Q

freud and dan support for innate attachment

A

mutual attachments of 3-4-year-olds who lived together in a concentration camp, they couldn’t provide for each other but still formed an attachment thus there’s a primary drive.

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21
Q

harlow support for innate attchament

A

rhesus monkeys —> do they gravitate towards food or mother —> when stressed goes to comforting mother

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22
Q

robertson and hospital finding

A

films staying in hospital, werent allowed to stay with children in hospital, inititally babies were distressed, prolonged speration broke attachment, protest despair and detachment.

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23
Q

strange situation

A
  • babies, 12-24 months
  • lab, toys, controlled
  • mother and baby in room
  • mother and baby alone, baby explores
  • stranger enters
  • mother leaves
  • reuinion
  • mother leaves
  • stranger
  • reuinion
  • each stage = 3 mins
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24
Q

what behaviours were being tested in the SS?

A

proximity seeking, contact maintenance, avoidance and resistance

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25
Q

how many babies = secure = B

A

70%

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26
Q

insecure avoidant = A

A
  • 20%
  • no distress in seperation
  • not pleased in reuinion
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27
Q

insecure resistant = C

A
  • 10%
  • distressed, extreme highs
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28
Q

what is the spectrum of attchment

A

A1 A2 B1 B2 B3 B4 C2 C1

b4 = stressed but can be calmed
c1 cannot be calmed

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29
Q

main and solomons additional attachment

A

disorganised - type D

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30
Q

describe disorganised attachment

A

anxcious, changes in behaviour, disoganised
- D babies have no obvious strategy for gaining contact with mother or for being soothed and comforted
- May show bizarre or conflictual behaviours

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31
Q

what increases risk of D type of attachment

A

poverty —> 25%

drug abuse —> 43%

maternal depression —> 19%

abuse —> 43%
middle class families —> 15%

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32
Q

van izjendoorn

A

meta analysis, 62% secure, 15% avoidant, 9% resistant, 15% disorganised

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33
Q

internal working model

A

mental cogtnitive model that frames your view of relationships and what you expect in the ufture. working model of self, are you worthy of love? can be both positive and negative. representational , how you process yourexpeirnces, fixed at age 4-5.

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34
Q

maine attachment interview

A

Semi-structured interview for classifying an adult’s overall ‘state of mind’ w.r.t. attachment relationships

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35
Q

what are the classes in mains AAI

A

dismissing
preoccupied
autonomous
unresolved

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36
Q

what do the classes mean

A
  • Dismissing (Ds) – insist on lack of recall of attachment relationships, devalue attachments or idealise attachment figures
  • Preoccupied (E) – still preoccupied with early attachment experiences; the topic of attachment is overwhelming è anger or passivity
  • Autonomous (F) – attachment is an open topic, coherent & believable account of childhood, presented in a lively & objective fashion
  • Unresolved (U) - become incoherent specifically when discussing loss or abuse
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37
Q

what is the main factor predicting adult attachment

A

life events

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38
Q

What was piaget interested in?

A

constructivism –> how dp chidlren ACTIVLEY construct their understanding of the world

adaptation –> intelligence is a special form of adaptation to the environment, the main engine of cognitive change. the continuous process of adaptation is the engine of change

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39
Q

what is a cognitive schema?

A

basic components of intelligence, first schemas are reflexes, the schemas become more complex via assimilation and accommodation

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40
Q

who believed children are active learners?

A

piaget

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41
Q

Piagets stage theory

A

Sensorimotor (0–2 years)
Pre-operational period (2–7 years)
Concrete operations (7–12 years)
Formal operations (c.11 years +)

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42
Q

assimilation

A

different objects become associated to to the schema

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43
Q

accommodation

A

accommodates for the fact not all objects have the same properties and we have to treat things a different way

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44
Q

sensori motor stage

A

Divided into six sub-stages
Each stage can be characterised in terms of developments in the infant’s mode of interaction with the object world and resulting object concept

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45
Q

sub stages of sensori motor stage

A
  1. reflexes (0-6 weeks)
  2. primary reactions, repeating body movements 4 consequences
  3. secondary circular reactions, repetitions of sounds that have effect on environment (hitting something with sound
  4. means-end behaviour, doing something to gain an end, moving blanket to get a toy
  5. tertiary circular reactions, experiments to discover means to ends
  6. representation, can imagine consequences of planned actions
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46
Q

object concept sub stages

A

Stage I: state of adualism
Stage II: ‘out of sight, out of existence’
Stage III: can retrieve partially occluded objects BUT not fully occluded
Stage IV: can retrieve fully occluded objects BUT A not B error
v: invisible displacement
vi: full object permanence

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47
Q

what is the A not B error

A

E hides desired object (fully occluded) at location A, and infant retrieves it
Hiding at A is repeated twice more
In full view of the infant, E moves object to location B
Where will the infant search?

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48
Q

what is the invisible displacement task?

A

the ability to track the movement of a hidden object after seeing that object placed in, under, or behind an occluder and moved into or behind a second occluder

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49
Q

what can infents do at the end of the sensori motor period?

A

Infants are able hold a ‘representation’ of the object in memory, i.e. imagine objects that have been encountered previously

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50
Q

what are the charectoristics of the pre operational child?

A

Egocentrism
Lack of reversibility
Animism

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51
Q

what is egocentrism

A

Children have problems decentring: viewing the world from perspectives other than their own
Manifested in over-determination by appearances
Centration: excessive focus on a single aspect of a phenomenon

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52
Q

what is the three mountains task?

A

Child shown 3-D model of mountain scene, and invited to walk around
Doll placed at one side of the model
shown images of different povs asked to chose which one represents dolls view

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53
Q

when do children give correct answers to the three mountains task?

A

between 8 and 9
still giving wrong answer at 4 giving their own pov ,

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54
Q

what is conservation?

A

Test of the understanding that basic properties of matter are unaffected by changes in appearance
Examples: quantity, number, length, mass, area, volume
Piaget: success requires concrete operational thinking (esp. reversibility)

55
Q

conservation experiment

A

Child shown two identical objects or arrays of objects
Asked to judge whether same or different
Experimenter manipulates object/array to alter appearance
Child asked again whether same or different
Pre-operational child: “Different”

56
Q

lack of reversibility

A

correct use of operations requires reversibility
being able to mentally retrace steps

57
Q

why do pre-operational children fail those tasks?

A

Because perceptually dominated by one aspect of display: centration
In number conservation, children may focus on length of array, without considering change in spacing of items
In three mountains, over-determined by how the display looks to them
Show lack of reversibility because can’t simultaneously represent two different perspectives

58
Q

animism

A

An example of children’s naïve theories about how the world works
Children attribute animate and mental qualities to inanimate objects (Piaget, 1960)
Why does the sun move?
If you pricked a stone, would it feel it?
Another form of egocentrism

59
Q

concrete operational stage

A

Children now pass all the tasks they failed in the preoperational stage!
- think abstractly
- hypothetical reasoning

60
Q

concrete operational tasks?

A

Third eye problem – where would you place your extra eye?
Pendulum task – what determines how fast the pendulum swings?

61
Q

problem with Piagets view of childs limited object permenance

A
  • can be due to limited motor skill
  • differengt methodology
  • dishabituation
62
Q

how can dishabituation be used to asses wether a child has object permenance

A

Infant habituates to event—i.e. ‘interest’ decreases with repeated presentation
The stimulus is changed
Look to see whether infant renews attention to the changed stimulus: dishabituation
If so, can infer that the infant has perceived the change

63
Q

rabbit experiment

A

5 year infants shown possible and impossible condition which found they can retain phsyical dimensions and object existence

64
Q

issue with preoperational stage

A
  • may be due to language barriers
65
Q

three levels of understanding

A

The mind exists
The mind has connections to the physical world
The mind can represent objects and events

66
Q

theory of mind

A

Understanding links between beliefs & behaviour
Understanding the logic of mental state language
Understanding that beliefs are only in the running for truth – they can be false as well as true

67
Q

what makes a person more lilely to pass ToM task

A

Have regular contact with extended family (Lewis et al., 1996)
Higher SES
Mothers more highly educated
Better at collaborative symbolic play earlier in development (Astington & Jenkins, 1995; Meins et al., 1998; Youngblade & Dunn, 1995)

68
Q

what does it mean for a child to have a theory of mind?

A

Children who can represent different mental states are said to have acquired a theory of mind

69
Q

at what age do we think ToM develops (when do children generally pass the unexpected transfer task)

A

4

70
Q

what is the unexpected transfer task

A

asking children what anotehr person would believe about a false belief

71
Q

alternatives reasons for chidlren failing ToM task

A

Failure may be due to other task demands
Executive (Russell et al. (1991)
Reality bias (Mitchell, 1994)
Narrative problems – children have to understand the notion of story telling
Standard ToM tasks heavily dependent on verbal abilities
There are individual differences in ToM in children of identical age

72
Q

most valid critique of piaget

A

he didn’t sufficiently integrate social experiences into his theory of cognitive development unlike the ToM

73
Q

what does it mean for Vgotskys theory to be sociocultural?

A
  • developed a theory that did justice to the social origin of mental processes
  • mental processes can only be understood by looking at what they develop from and into
  • interpersonal social interactions are very important
74
Q

wertschs 3 themes in Vgotskys work

A
  • reliance on genetic method —> higher mental functions and elemenrtay mental functions, how do elementry develop to higher
  • semiotic mediation —> HMF mediated by culturally derived systems
  • social orgins —> HMF have origins in societal inertactions
75
Q

EMFs (elementary mental functions)

A

develop along natural line, basic, not human specific, innate, not conscious

76
Q

HMFs (higher mental functions)

A

develop along a cultural line via social interactions, specific to humans and accessible to consciousness, mediated by sign systems (language), not automatic

77
Q

semiotic mediation

A
  • using signs and symbols (language) to mediate an facilitate cognitive processes
  • these tools help us organise thoughts an communicate
  • play a roll in cognitive evelopment, hlpes us individualise cultural norms
78
Q

what is the forbidden colour task?

A

children asked question about colours, then they arent allowee to say a certain colour, theyre given a card with a picture e.g., grass (green banned) how can they describe it.

79
Q

what ages are unsuccessful/successful at the forbidden colours task?

A

5-6 year old had many errors
8-13 card acted as mediartion and improvement was seen
adult little errors with no help

80
Q

what is the mediation for deaf people?

A

sign language acts as a mediation –> HMF

81
Q

what is the zone of proximal development?

A

ones own ability to develop and potential to develop under guidance focus on potential

82
Q

vgotskys theory implication for tutoring

A

tutors need to work with ZPD
need to identify it

83
Q

evidence for ZPD focused tutoring ..

A

evidence —> we would expect older children to be more self regulated, older children were much more self regulated.

wertsch and hickamn —> this shift can happen quickly.

indiviudal differences in tutoring styles - adjustments made in task to target their ZPD

84
Q

does attachment security pedict ZPD?

A

meins found that secure group mothers were better at ifnding ZPD level whilst insecure were too involved or not involved enough

85
Q

when asked to do a pyramid task who performed better?

A

wood foundpryamid task, children who had ZPD targeted tutror perfomed better

in conclusion: ID in wetehr caregivers and teachers tailor their interaction to the childs ZPD can have fair reaching consequences for child development

86
Q

what is private speech to vgotsky ?

A

Lev Vygotsky saw private speech as a critical step in cognitive development. He argued that it serves as a tool for thinking and problem-solving and is a precursor to inner speech. Vygotsky believed that private speech reflects a child’s growing ability to self-regulate and think independently.

87
Q

inner speech

A

verbal thoughts

88
Q

egocentric speech ==

A

piaget - children are just speaking for themselves and unable to see other people
p eak in ages 3-7

89
Q

vgotskys view on speech

A

social interctaion -> private speech –> inner speech

90
Q

what is developmental psychology?

A

The study of the development of mind and behaviour
Hence obvious links with most other areas of psychology
Focus on how mind and behaviour change (i.e. description), and why they change (i.e. causal explanation)

91
Q

tabula rasa idea

A

john locke - mind is a blank slate - everything is learned in terms of development

92
Q

plato

A

innate

93
Q

who is the emergence of scientific iscipline rooted in?

A

darwin

94
Q

dawrins main contributions?

A

Idea of development as progressive adaptation to environment
Systematic methods – no longer reliant on anecdotal evidence
Biological origins of human nature – idea of genetic and evolutionary inheritance
- gave rise to stage theories

95
Q

nature an nurture

A

modern position - recognisig that bath nature and nurture are important for development
piaget and vgotsky = interactionist

96
Q

discontinuous vs continuous theories

A

freud - dis - psychosexual development
bandure - continuous

97
Q

what does ‘longitudinal stability and inlfuence’ question about development?

A
  • do some things develop over time
  • are somethings most important at certain periods of life
98
Q

Problems with the ‘task’ approach

A

Ecological validity
Children are often not compliant, and/or do not understand what is required of them
Minor changes in methodology can entirely alter children’s responses

99
Q

crticisms for bowlbys 1958 theory

A

Generalisation from clinical observations to ‘normal’ children being reared at home  focus on all separation as trauma
Concerned with the making and breaking of attachments
Single attachment to mother: “good mothering from any kind of woman ceases to satisfy [the infant] – only his own mother will do” (p. 370). So called monotropy

100
Q

what aspect of bowlbys theory id ainsworth challenge

A

monotropy - thought there were multiple attachments

101
Q

bowlbys 1969 adapted theory

A

Goal-corrected system, rather than innate responses
Mother most notable and interesting cue in environment, proximity to her becomes set goal
Attachment not a purely innate instinct, but depends on environmental conditions activating the innate attachment systems

102
Q

what is the problem of assesing preescholers attchment style?

A
  • measures are used that do not observe behaviour
  • for example, child attachment interview (CAO)
  • self report methods
103
Q

when does the internal working model become fixed?

A

4-5

104
Q

link the early attchments by ainsworth to mains AAI categories…

A

Secure attachment  Autonomous AAI
Avoidant attachment Dismissing AAI
Resistant attachment Preoccupied AAI
Disorganised attachment Unresolved AAI

105
Q

what are the 4 Ps

A

The 4 Ps
Profound – changes individual’s entire outlook on the world, e.g. attachment formation
Permanent – unlike learning, developmental changes are not easily reversed
Progressive – developmental changes bring about improvement
Pervasive – affects all areas of life  can’t look only at one developmental domain

106
Q

equilibrium

A

the balance between these processes required for the creation of consistent internal models

107
Q

what is the language issue?

A

Criticism: pre-operational children’s failure may be due to language issues
Piaget’s tasks certainly can be linguistically demanding: e.g. “as much as”, “same amount”, “more than”
Many other cognitive tasks known to relate to verbal ability

108
Q

donaldson care study

A

Cars without garages: 4–6-yr-olds interpret ‘more’ correctly
Cars with garages, around a third interpret ‘more’ as ‘complete’

109
Q

problem of human sense

A

Criticism: Children fail these tasks because they don’t make ‘human sense’ (Donaldson, 1978)
If you alter the task to make it more ‘relevant’ to the child’s experience, performance will improve

110
Q

hughes doll hidding finding

A

Children asked to hide the doll so that it can’t be seen by the policeman doll(s)
3.5-yr-olds - 90% correct
Piaget has seriously underestimated children’s perspective-taking ability?

111
Q

evaluation of piagets account

A

Piaget’s theory sets out a sequence of steps that are logically necessary for thought to develop fully
Thus, quibbling with the timetable for ages for specific stages misses the point
No study has questioned the order of stages
Piaget himself was well aware of individual differences in task performance

112
Q

what is the perpsctive on ToM since 80s

A

developmental psychology has moved towards understanding children’s ability to take another person’s mental perspective

113
Q

hvaing a ToM implies what

A

Understanding links between beliefs & behaviour
Understanding the logic of mental state language
Understanding that beliefs are only in the running for truth – they can be false as well as true

114
Q

reaons children may fail ToM task

A

Failure may be due to other task demands
Executive (Russell et al. (1991)
Reality bias (Mitchell, 1994)
Narrative problems – children have to understand the notion of story telling
Standard ToM tasks heavily dependent on verbal abilities
There are individual differences in ToM in children of identical age

115
Q

The role of interpersonal interaction in ToM

A

ToM performance is facilitated by having access to communicative interaction
Interaction involving mental state talk seems particularly important

116
Q

what makes you more likley to pass ToM task

A

Have regular contact with extended family (Lewis et al., 1996)
Higher SES
Mothers more highly educated
Better at collaborative symbolic play earlier in development (Astington & Jenkins, 1995; Meins et al., 1998; Youngblade & Dunn, 1995)

117
Q

what is mind - mindedness

A

The caregiver’s tendency to treat the young child as an individual with a mind
Enables parent to ‘tune in’ to what the child may be thinking or feeling
Appropriate and non-attuned mind-related comments
Accurately tuning in to your infant’s internal states facilitates the child’s own mind-reading abilities later in development

118
Q

piaget on speech

A

Egocentrism –> Socialisedintellect
Private speech Social speech

119
Q

what does vgotksy think of infant speech

A

Speech begins as a social activity & is later internalised to create the individual intellect
PS is an essential mid-point stage in this internalisation, indicating the use of words (psychological tools) to control behaviour
Vygotsky therefore makes the same prediction as Piaget about PS dying away, but for very different reasons

120
Q

Fernyhough and Fradley (2005)

A
  • Assessed children’s PS during the Tower of London (an executive planning task)
  • Self-regulatory PS was most common on puzzles of moderate difficulty
    Levels of self-regulatory PS were positively associated with concurrent task success
121
Q

Al-Namlah and Meins

A

What happens to task success if one tries to prevent children from using PS?

122
Q

what is berks three level scheme

A

Developed three-level scheme to indicate internalisation level
Level 1: task irrelevant PS
Level 2: task-relevant, overt PS
Level 3: external manifestations of task-relevant inner speech (inaudible muttering, whispering, verbal lip movements)

123
Q

describe the blue-walled room experiment

A

Test of spatial memory
Navigating a rectangular room is difficult after disorientation for adults
Does having one wall painted blue help navigation?
adults use blue room to help find reward
start to act like adults 5-7 years

124
Q

is there any such thing as a non verbal task ?

A

As well as being used for communication and creativity, we use speech throughout the lifespan to regulate our behaviour
There may be no such thing as a ‘non-verbal’ task

125
Q

what tests are done in the sensroi mtoro stage?

A

a not b
invsibible discplacement

126
Q

what can chilren do at end of sensori motor stage?

A
  • hold object in memory
  • pass A not B
  • pass invisble displacement
127
Q

what tests are done in pre opertaional?

A
    • conservation
  • 3D mountain
  • reversability test
128
Q

what test is used to asses theory of mind and when is it passed?

A

the unexpected transfer task
4+

129
Q

what is achieved at concrete operational stage?

A

all tests at pre operational stage have been passed

130
Q

what is achieved at formal operational stage?

A

Ability to think abstractly
Hypothetical or inferential reasoning
If Amy is taller than Eve and Eve is taller than Sophie, who’s the tallest?

131
Q

central ideas to vgotskys theory?

A
  • social origin
  • EMH & HLF
  • ZPD
  • tutoring
  • Private speech and inner speech
132
Q

when do thought and speech being to function together

A

age 2

133
Q

bruner and scaffholding

A

supportive and gradually reduced guidance provided by an instructor to help a learner accomplish tasks independently, targeting their zone of proximal development.

Psych year one (19 decks)

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