Dev wk 7-10

Question 1

5 levels of self awareness in early life Rochat (2003)

Answer 1

Level 0: confusion
1: differentiation
2: situation
3: identification
4: Permanence
5: ‘meta’ self awareness

Question 2

Level 0: confusion

early life self-awareness

Answer 2

• Oblivious to mirrors or reflection of mirrors

Question 3

Level 1: differentiation

Answer 3

• start recognising there are other individuals who are “models” and may also imitate them.
  = seen vs felt. see something and are trying to feel that.
• at birth, infants differentiate their body as a different entity from others
• 10 minute old babies: tongue protrusion (Meltzoff + Moore) (may not be replicable)
• 1 day old infants can differentiate between themselves and someone else touching their cheek (Rochat & Hespos, 1996)

Question 4

Level 2: Situation

Answer 4

• children more mobile, recognise how body is situated in relation to other objects
• By 6 weeks, immitation becomes more fine tuned
• By 2 months, involve in protoconversations (pretend to have convo, making sounds, taking turns)
• By 2-4 months, infants aware they can control objects

Question 5

Level 3: Identification

Answer 5

• referred to as the Birth of “me”. In the second year of life (18 months)
• Classic study by Lewis and Brooks-Gun (1979)
• employed the “mirror test” (previously used with non-human primates) on infants aged 9-24 months.
• Infants had red mark on face, placed infront of mirror and observed for 90 seconds.
  Found
  9-12 mnths didn’t touch nose
  15-18, minority touched nose
  21-24 did touch nose (70-73 %

Question 6

Level 4: Permenance

Answer 6

• Birth of “me” extending over time after 18 months.
• Me-but-not-me Dilemma: “me” as another.
  e.g. image seen in mirror or on TV is refereed to in 3rd person.
• develops at age 4. They refer to an old image of them as “me” and grasp the temporal dimension of self.

Question 7

Level 5: Meta-awareness

Answer 7

• Others in mind. Evaluative and meta-cognitive awarness at age 4-5.
• Hold multiple representations and perspectives on objects and people
• Showing “embarrassment” for their image -> self conscious how others might see them
• Corresponds to the developmental period of false belief understanding (theory of mind)

Question 8

are the 5 levels of early self recognition universal?

Answer 8

• Cross cultural studies:
  18-20 mnth olds from Costa-Rica, Greece, Germany, Cameroon.
• Found Cameroon children to pass the test less than 4% (rest showed 50%). May indicate that these cultures require diff measures.
• Only 2 out of 82 children 18mnth - 6years Kenyan children touched nose. most froze, staring at their image. (Broesch, 2011)

Question 9

why may we find cross cultural differences in children from Kenya compared to WEIRD culture

Answer 9

• parenting style (maternal contingent responsiveness) e.g. parent follows in to a change in the environment, talking to the child.
• less exposure to the stimuli
• General lack of expressivity
• Confused about what is expected of them

Question 10

why imitate?

+how is imitation a paradox

Answer 10

• important form of social theory (and relatedness)
  A paradox.
• children imitate selectively
• children imitate faithfully (OVer immitation)

Question 11

selective immitation

Answer 11

14 month old children imitate selectively: they understand others goals and intentions
- copy intentional acts and not accidental acts or failed attempts
- copy the rational acts e.g. turning on a light switch with elbow)

Question 12

Overimitation

Answer 12

Children also copy slavishly (e.g. also copy head scratch when not part of demonstration)

study: 3-5 yr olds & chimps observe an adult giving an unfamiliar puzzle box w opaque walls (so how it works was not clear).
Once worked out some were unnecessary, chimps imitated only necessary, children imitated slavishly.

Question 13

Imitate to Affiliate

different goals

Answer 13

Social side: People’s dependence on others and need for belonging to a group creates motivations and pressures to imitate.

• learning goals: when the goal is to learn something, we usually imitate selectively.
• Social goals: usually faithful and conveys social info such as “I am like you” or, at a group level “I am one of you”.
• Learning AND Social goals (Norms): copy the actions of ingroup members (e.g. native speakers) more faithfully than outgroup members
• Social pressures: children might feel pressure to imitate (e.g. making a wrong choice simply because they want to stick with the group

Question 14

How do children respond to threat of social exclusions

Answer 14

Being excluded from groups is painful for all adults.
- Adults sometimes respond to exclusion with affiliative behaviours.
- How sensitive are children to ostricism?

study via third party ostracism. they see the threat of ostracism for someone else.
do they respond via affiliation?

watched one video where objects experienced ostracism (a leaf wanted to play with two leaves)
and a control ( a bee wasn’t interested in playing and the two leaves did the same movement

Found
children who watched the ostracism video not only imitated more, but (faithfully) over imitated more than children who watched control videos.

Suggests
children are sensitive to social exclusion and modify their social behaviour in response to ostracism.
- often affiliate with others through ostracism

similar study also showed children to draw images of them and friend more positive emotion and closer proximity to friend, more complex.

Question 15

Reputation management

Answer 15

to avoid exclusion and ostracism -> reputation management.

As adults, our behaviour is modulated by our perception of what others think think of us
- adjust beh so others see us in positive light.
- More generous in presence of others (multiple citations)

Question 16

Audience presence

Answer 16

• 5 yr olds in 4 conditions

stealing task vs helping task.
had to fill board with stickers. stealing task, other child had large excess stickers, you had missing.
Helping task, you had a couple excess, they were missing one.

would you steal? would you help?

Half children in each task were either observed or unobserved. by another child.

if they care more about reputation, they should help more/steal less when observed
THIS WAS THE CASE.

Question 17

Commitment to the group

Answer 17

• children prefer members of own groups to members of other groups (Dunham et al., 2011)
• 5-8 yr olds predict that their team preferences would not change even if their team lost all of their games.
• 5 yr olds are loyal to their groups. e.g. keep secrets even if offered bribes when in group secret but took sticker bribe immediately if out group secret.

Question 18

commitment to the group and reputation management

Answer 18

strategic reputation mangement requires not only whether people are watching, but also who is watching.
- more generous when observed by ingroup than outgroup. e.g. important partner they need to impress.

Question 19

core features of play

Answer 19

• flexibility: diff forms and lengths
• Positive affect: about having fun
• Non - literality: paradoxical literacy. don’t have learning goals. but they do end up learning lots
• Intrinsic motivation: voluntary

Question 20

piaget identified 4 kinds of play. we focus on which 2 types

Answer 20

functional play: child repeats motor actions on objects
pretend or symbolic play: child substitutes imagined world for reality

other types are
construction play
games with rules

not mutually exclusive

Question 21

through development, what happens to trends of pretend and undifferentiated playq

Answer 21

undifferentiated play (e.g. throwing all objects on floor or making same noise) decreases.

pretend play increases with age

Question 22

functional play study.

playing to resolve uncertainty

• children like to play with new things.
  But how long would it take a child to be enticed by a new toy if they are uncertain about how the toy they already played with works

how was this studied

Answer 22

had a clear condition and unclear condition. unclear = children pulled down sticks A and B which popped up a frog and a duck. unclear what the individual sticks do.

Then a novel toy is introduced.

if children playing to explore, they should spend more time with old toy than new toy in unclear condition.

this was the case.

Question 23

Playing to discover & pedagogy

question

Answer 23

• children naturally curious to discover new things.
• They also pay attention to others who might indicate whether there is something interesting to be discovered.

is this relience on “elders” beneficial to the child

Question 24

pedagogical sign exploration.

Answer 24

Butler & Markman

3 + 4 yr olds

chidldren learned that a blicket is a magnet in 2 condtions (made up).

Accidental condition: E says oops. demontrated was but acted as if they didn’t know how the object functions.

Pedagogical condition: adult demonstrated intnetionally that the blicket was magnetic.

Then children given 10 inert (non magnetic) blickets.
wanted to see how many attempts to get paperclips to stick.
wanted to see how mang blickets tested.

children tried significantly more in pedagogical condition than in accidental.

shows that both 3 and 4 yr olds. in pedagogical condition, they have more trust in pedagogical cues.

Question 25

pedagogy as a double edged sword

Answer 25

demonstrations provide evidence of causal relationships.

BUT
also about what relationships do not exist. and so these would not be explored.

evidence shows that children perform better when given chance to explore the toys functions (e.g. in accidental condition) compared to when purposefully demonstrated what toy does (e.g. pedagogical)

Question 26

pretend (symbolic play)

Answer 26

• as if stance
• pretence is complex
• pretender intentionally projects an alternative on the present situation.
• is Counterfactual.
• gets more complex when groups of individuals collectively “pretend”, acting like diff people.
• allows to develop meta-representative and linguistic skills.
• hard to distinguish pretend play from other types of play. e.g. physical play
• emerges from around 12-15 months and peaks around 3-5 years.

Question 27

decontextualization and imagination.

Answer 27

key aspect of early pretend play is the use of realistic objects
- over time, children become more skilled at decontextualisation. using non realistic objects in pretend play.

By age 3, children use more imaginative behaviour. less reliance on props.

Question 28

Development of pretend play

Answer 28

by 18 months, begin to perfom individually pretend acts (individual)

2-3 years children start engaging in joint pretense with play partners (cooperative)

by age 3, children could coordinate fictional scenarios with others

Question 29

3 views explaining development of pretend play

what are they and what do they all focus on?

Answer 29

all focus on relationship between pretense and ToM (mental state attribution)

• Rich account
• Lean account
• We-intentionality account

Question 30

Rich account of the development of pretend play

Answer 30

Alan Leslie (1978)
- Being able to keep reality apart is a complex ability
- Children are not egocentric in this ability. i.e. they are aware others are pretending to play.
- By 18-24 Months, children also respond to others pretend acts.
- They fill up empty teacups or wipe up when pretend teacups are spilt

• Children have adult-like meta-representations

Question 31

what is Lean account of development of pretend play

Answer 31

Angeline Lillard. children are behaving “as-if” without really understanding the diff between fiction and play

Question 32

Lean account of development of pretend play study

Answer 32

children given stories about a character called Moe , from another planet. The “as if” behaviour was that Moe hopped like a rabbit.

study 1: Moe’s behaviour lacked cognitive prerequisite (he did not know about rabbits)

study 2: Moe lacked intentional prerequisite (he did not want to hop like a rabbit.

asked was Moe pretending to hop like a rabbit or not?

All 4 & 5 yr olds said yes. he is pretending

Question 33

methodological issues with lean account of pretend play research

Answer 33

Confusing. Interviews may not be the best way to gain a childs understanding.

So, Action based methodology was used to investigate the intentional prerequisite with 2 and 3 year olds.
e.g. adult clearly intentionally wanted to pretend to pour water from a cup, in otehr condition, looked like they were actually trying and failing. After pretend condition, children also pretended.

Question 34

We-intentionality pretend play

+ study

Answer 34

joint pretending, both need to pretend X is Y.

pretended green block was soap.

wanted to see if child would protest when green block was used as a carrot.
found that 2 and 3 yr olds protested.

at age 2, they understood pretending as a specific form of inentional, non serious activity

Question 35

How crucial is pretend play?

Methodological issues

Answer 35

Inconsistent results and methodological issues.
Lillard (2013) conducted a review of 40 years of research

• most studies are correlational
• Non-random assignment of children (can’t deny children of play)
• Experimenter are not blind. they have to observe children who partake in pretend play and they know that these children should show higher intelligence

Question 36

Areas of development in pretend play. (what is it beneficial to)

Answer 36

• Non social aptitudes: Creativity, intelligence, problem solving, reasoning , conservation
• Social aptitudes: Theory of mind
• Symbolic understanding: Language development
• Self-regulation: Executive function, Emotion regulation

Question 37

so how does pretend play impact IQ

Answer 37

correlational IQ test studies show that More intelligent children engaged in pretend play more often.

BUT
hard to establish direction of effects.

Training studies show that Other adult interventions such as music, raised IQ scores just as much

Question 38

Nonsocial aptitudes: Reasoning

Answer 38

Logical syllogisms: Dogs live in trees, Rex is a dog, does REx live in a tree?

correct asnwer is yes, but must inhibit real world knowlege

Pretend play might help children to reason about false premises, since they are definitial to pretend play.

Question 39

pretend play on theory of mind

Answer 39

false belief understanding requires the same architecture as X represents Y.
e.g. I believe my phone is in my bag when it isn’t there.

• Through role play, children put themselves in someone elses shoes.
• Children who engage in pretend play also perform better in false belief tasks.

Question 40

pretend play in symbolic understanding: language development

Answer 40

pretend play, like language, is symbolic.

children who are more advanced in their play at 1 display better language skills at 2

there is some evidence that play-based interventions affect later language development

Question 41

Cross cultural differences in play

Answer 41

big diff in attitudes towards play.

• In Mayan Culture (Gaskins + Goncu, 192):
  Children do not have time to play as are engaged in chores. Spend little time with same age peers as aspend most time with family. Adults do not value play.
• Pretend play seems to show same developmental trajectory across cultures (Lillard 2017)

Question 42

take home practical applications from lecture 8 on play

Answer 42

• don’t need expensive branded toys for children
• open ended toys are better
• adults should facilitate just enough , and not too much to dominate

play provides important contexts to practice various social, cognitive skills.

for pretend play, chldren become skillful pretenders at around age 2 and 3.
is a very sophisticated socio-cognitive act

Question 43

what are social norms?

Answer 43

norms that are a form of “social reality” prescribing people act in certain ways in certain contexts

(e.g. money is paper but in social reality has value)

Question 44

Domain theory says there are how many types of social norms and what are they

Answer 44

• Moral norms
• Conventional norms

Question 45

what are moral norms

Answer 45

Concern the welfare of others. Evolved from 2 natural tendancies:
- natural tendency to help one another
- people avoid to harm one another

Question 46

Conventional norms

Answer 46

don’t directly concern welfare of others and have the following 3 properties:

example rule: in this nursery, blue toys must go in blue box
- Idiosyncratic: (what is wrong with putting green toys in green box
- Agent-neutral: all children in school should respect the rule, not just one.
- Context specific: rule is only valid in this nursery.

Question 47

Classic view of moral development

Answer 47

• Children are egocentric, selfish, amoral
  (Piaget, Kohlberg, Damon)

Question 48

Two step model of Ontogeny of human Morality

Answer 48

step 1: second person morality before age 3. (preference).
“i don’t like to see you suffer” “I like to help you”
- Helping, sympathy
-collaboration + sharing

it is nice to be nice

Step 2: Pre-schoolers’ norm based morality. (Agent-neutral)
“people should not harm others”. “people should help eachother”.
- Enforcement of social norms
- Guilt + shame

it is right to be nice

Question 49

Development of 2nd person morality

Answer 49

Infancy 0-12 months
- empathy
- social preferences

Ages 1-3 More “active” pro sociality
- Helping, sympathy
- Collaboration and sharing

Question 50

example of infant showing empathy

Answer 50

Infant not bothered about own pre recorded crying, but is distressed by another babies crying

Question 51

Example of social preferences in Infants

Answer 51

prefer Good over Bad.

presented a puppet show with shapes helping or hindering each other up the hill.
which shape did babies touch first? or more?

infants preferred helpers to hinderers
helpers > neutral
Neutral > hinderers

Question 52

issue with comparing infants to 1-3 yr olds

Answer 52

Methodological differences

e.g. Indirect measures have to be used with infants: touching one object over another, preferential looking.

Ages 1-3 can employ active behavioural paradigms (directly dealing with moral behaviour or sentiments)

Question 53

Active helping at age 1-2

Answer 53

Children read the intentions/goals of individuals and determine whether that individual needs help or not

Children help others to achieve their goals

e.g. if adult in same situation and makes it clear they are not interested in opening the cabinet, children do not help.
- Control conditions

Question 54

Children’ s Motivation for helping.

two possible types

Answer 54

Intrinsic motivation: one does things because it feels nice and right

Extrinsic motivation: for external rewards

Question 55

Pupil dialation study to explore motivation of morality

Answer 55

pupil dialation indicates stress.

3 conditions where adult needs help:

• needs help and child helps
• need helps and no one helps
• needs help and other helps.

pupils only didn’t reduce in dilation, indicating remaining stress

Question 56

Selective helping.
Do children look at harm caused or indivs intentions

Answer 56

will a 3 yr old help the following people or a neutral person?

• HArmful person: destroys somoenes picture
• Helpful person
• Neutral person
• Intended but failed to harm
• Accidental harm

Found Children didn’t help those with ill intentions.
Did help those who accidentally harmed

Question 57

which step do children develop a sense of fairness and deservingness.

how is this studied

Answer 57

Towards step 2.

children work together to earn something.
One child gets lucky and earns more.
Will children notice the unfairness?
Will they try to make things fair?
Did study with marbels.
after work, 1 child give n 3 marbels, other given 1

after collaberative work, they shared equally

after parallel work, they didn’t

Question 58

limitations of moral judgement studies

Answer 58

• Interview method relies heavily on verbal ability, hypothetical thinking, counterfactual reasoning
• Is moral judgement enough?
  . e.g. One may know what is right or wrong but may not act on it

Question 59

How can full fledged morality be investigated?

Answer 59

• how do young children make moral judgements?
  . evaluation of an action as right and wrong
• Do children have normative expectations?
  . Do they enforce norms on others?
• Do young children appreciate generality of norms?
  . Do they enforce norms as an unaffected observer?
  . Impersonal perspectave (we/one should do X)

Question 60

Experimental studies on Moral Judgement in action

Answer 60

How do children react when they experience norms violation?

2 and 3 yr olds taught a novel game.
Children witness puppet playing game wrong.

Found 3 yr olds intervened using “Normative” language.
- “No you shouldn’t do that”
“not how it goes”
“One has to put it there”

Question 61

normative conflict in 3 and 5 yr olds study

Answer 61

both complete sorting game But given diff rules (e.g. sort by colour vs sort by animal).
Wanted to see how they would resolve this conflict.

Found both 3 and 5 yr olds corrected their peers actions

It took 3 year olds a lot longer to resolve the conflict and agree on a rule than 5 yr olds

• 3 yr olds did not realise that the experiment was the reason for the disagreement

Suggests that normative understanding gets more flexible across preschool years

Question 62

Is norm enforcement universal?

Answer 62

• 5-8 yr olds from highly diverse societies enforced conventional norms (i.e. game rules) when they observed a peer who apparently broke them.

-Germany, Argentina, Kenya, Namibia, India, Bolivia.

Found all showed enforcement of conventional norms. is human universal

but
Style of enforcement varied.
e.g. Imperative protest (don’t do that, no) vs normative lamguage (one is supposed to do that)

Question 63

Intervention against moral norm violations

experiment

Answer 63

explored property rights “Mine!”
studied 2 and 3 yr olds.

Actor took away and threw away objects belonging to:
- himself
- the child
- a third party

Found
both 2 and 3 yr olds protested against own picture being ripped.

• only 3 yr olds stood up for 3rd party.

Question 64

So why do children transgress?

Answer 64

• Don’t know its wrong (failure of knowledge)
• Didn’t consider that it would hurt someone else (failure of empathy/perspective taking/theory of mind)
• Knew it was wrong or would hurt someone but did it anyway (failure of inhibition)

Question 65

Do other species have norms?

Answer 65

when food in middle, alpha chimp will eat it all, others won’t.

Is this social norms?

No. it is dominance. Not out of respect, but out of FEAR.
chimps do not have this collective understanding

Question 66

3 types of mental states

Answer 66

-Goals, Intentions and desires. act in accordance w goals, ppl with diff goals act diff.

• Understanding perception and knowledge access.
  visual perspective taking (can others see what I see?). seeing is not necessarily same as knowing, must be aware.
• Beliefs or representations of the world or the reality.
  true belief = correctly represent the reality
  Ignorance = unaware of reality
  False belief = incorrect representation of reality

second order beliefs = belief ab belief

Question 67

ToM study of goals and intentions development

Answer 67

Unsuccessful actions allow us to explore goals of agents

Behne, Carpenter, CAll & Tomasello (2005)
studied 6-, 9-, 12- and 18 mnth olds.

Adult fails to hand child an object for 2 reasons.
1. Unwilling. adult teases infant or play with toy their self.
2. Unable adult. tries but drops toy.

only 9, 12, 18 mnths were more impatient or frustrated in unwilling condition compared to unable condition.

Infants adapted their responses to different intentional acts of the experimenter

Question 68

what do children understand about Desires

how was this studied

Answer 68

children often assume everyone likes what they like and dislikes what they dislike.

adult said “I love broccoli and hate goldfish crackers”

adult asked “can u give me some?”

Children younger than 2 gave goldfish crackers (could not perceive how one could like broccoli)

around age 2 gave broccoli

Question 69

perception and knowledge access development

+ studies

Answer 69

evident at age 1, more developed in age 2.

12 months. when experiemnter looks behind barrier and says oh! child will move to look behind barrier

24 month. adult entered room looking for object.
object 1: out in open
object 2: child could see, but experiemnter couldn’t
- when asked to help find object, 24 mnth olds handed him object 2

Question 70

what did wellman say about true vs false beleifs

Answer 70

A child’s understanding that a person has a flase belief (one that contradicts reality) provides compelling evidence for appreciating this distinction between mind and world

Question 71

developmental findings in unexpected location tasks

Answer 71

sam hid chocolate in cupboard, leaves room. Mum puts chocolate in drawer.
where will sam look for chocolate

3 yr olds typically answered incorrectly: drawer.

4-5 yr olds typically answered cupboard

Question 72

unexpected contents task research

Answer 72

shake box of smarties, ask what do u think is in there. Will say smarties.
open to reveal pencils.

ask: what do u think friend will think is in there?

3 yr olds answer pencils

4 yr olds: smarties

at age 3, children do not seem to understand that another person could have a false belief about the world

Question 73

implicit vs explicit ToM

Answer 73

Explicit: more conscious tracking of others mental states measured by standard false belief tasks.
* interviews with 3 - 5 yr olds

implicit: being able to track others mental states unconsiously
* with infants
* e.g. similar stories to false belief tasks with infants looking times measured

Question 74

Conceptual change models
ToM

Answer 74

Early ToM (before age 3) represents desire psychology e.g. they understand - goals and intentions, perception & knowledge access.

Then their Development represents a shift from this situation/reality based understanding of mind to a representation based.

This explains how children go from believing that belief equates reality to belief equates internal reality

Question 75

Competence models

ToM

Answer 75

criticise traditional false belief tasks, proposing that they undermine childs abilities due to task demands.

3 criticisms:
- task complexity: requires verbal ability, memory, attention, counterfactual thinking -> wording of question
- Reason for displacement: deception (e.g. why would u put pencils in a smarties box?).
. salience of mental state of protagonist
. what if children involved in story.

• perhaps, it is about executive function: inability to inhibit truth ab reality.

BUT when controlled for, these factors only increase performance a little bit

Question 76

what do active behavioural belief paradigms show

Answer 76

• task was for infants to help adult achieve goal (open pink or yellow box by handing over the keys)
  but to determine the goal (which box), infants had to take into account what the adult believed (i.e. whether or not he falsely believed there was a toy in box).

by 18 months of age, infants successfully took into account the adults belief in the process of attempting to determine his goal (e.g. if was absent for moving of toy from pink box to yellow box, would give him yellow key BUT if he witnessed toy being moved and baby knew this, baby would give pink key as he assumed “he knows where the toy is, so must be trying to open empty box”.

Question 77

how old are children when they begin to be surprised at implicit false belief tasks

Answer 77

10 - 15 mnths

Question 78

Conclusion/summary of false belief tasks

Answer 78

-some paradigms suggest when children recieve enoug hscaffolding, their performance increases

• However, with some exceptions, the performance of 3 yr olds seems unstable and the age diff persists

SO seems to be a significant behavioural change between 3 and 5 (a conceptual change)

Question 79

beyond false belief tasks, what evidence is there for understanding the development of thinking mentalistically

Answer 79

• in natural interactions, they perform “better”. e.g. spotaneous language (I thought I saw a cat but it was a dog”.

There are individual differences.
- Correlated with executive function, linguistic skills
- children with siblings tend to perform a bit better
- pretend play and ToM

Question 80

is ToM universal?

Answer 80

false beleif tasks only applies to WEIRD cultures
(Western, Eastern, Industrial , Rich, Democratic)
e.g. in some cultures it is against social norms to talk ab mental states. is considered witchcraft.

• some languages make more fine tuned distinctions in mental state verbs than others.
• Although children might master “mental states” reasoning sooner or later depending on the cultural communities (traditional vs common cultures) and language systems in which they are reared, they all seem to go through the same developmental trajectory in acquiring this ability. (Wellman et al., 2001).

Question 81

is ToM uniquely human skill?

Answer 81

chimps can understand intentions and goals.

primates can percieve others as goal-oriented beings.
- able to track what is visually available to others.
- mostly in competitive settings over cooperative.

No evidence yet for explicit ToM.
(similar to 3 yr olds)