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Biology 1001 > Cycle 3 > Flashcards

Cycle 3 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Each nucleotide consists of the five-carbon ______, a _______ group, and one of the four _________

A

sugar deoxyribose, phosphate, nitrogenous bases

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2
Q

Two of the bases, adenine, and guanine are _____, nitrogenous bases built from a pair of fused rings of carbon and nitrogen atoms

A

purines

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3
Q

The other two bases, thymine and cytosine, are ______, built from a single carbon ring

A

pyrimidines

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4
Q

Number of ____ = number of ______ (the amount of adenine = thymine, the amount of guanine = cytosine)

A

purines, pyrimidines

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5
Q

DNA polymerase on template strands is assembled in what direction

A

Assembled 5’ to 3’

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5
Q

The direction of movement of DNA polymerase on template strands
Moves ______

A

3’ to 5’

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6
Q

______The process of DNA replication in which the two parental strands separate and each serves as a template for the synthesis of new progeny double-stranded DNA molecule

A

Semi-conservative

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7
Q

______: A DNA strand assembled in the direction of DNA unwinding

A

Leading strand

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8
Q

______: A DNA strand assembled discontinuously in the direction opposite to DNA unwinding

A

Lagging strand

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9
Q

Unwinds DNA helix

A

Helicase

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10
Q

Avoids twisting the DNA ahead of replication form (in circular DNA) by cutting the DNA, turning the DNA on one side of the break in the direction opposite to that of the twisting force, and rejoining the two strands again

A

Topoisomerase

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11
Q

Stabilizes single-stranded DNA and prevent the two strands at the replication form from reforming double-stranded DNA

A

Single-stranded binding proteins

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12
Q

Synthesizes RNA primer in the 5’ to 3’ direction to initiate a new DNA strand

A

Primase

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12
Q

-Main replication enzyme in E.Coli
-Extends the RNA primer by adding DNA nucleotides to it

A

DNA polymerase 3

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13
Q

At the one end, a phosphate group is bound to the ___ carbon of deoxyribose sugar whereas at the other end, a hydroxyl group is bonded to the ___ carbon of deoxyribose sugar

A

5’, 3’

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13
Q

DNA strands grow in a ____ direction

A

5’ to 3’

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14
Q

An unwound and open region of a DNA helix where DNA replication occurs

A

Replication bubble

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14
Q

A bubble consists of two _______ replicating in opposite directions

A

replication forks

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15
Q

______ gives you information when characterizing the genome

A

Karyotype

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16
Q

In karyotype, scientists take chromosomes during _____, take them out of the cell, and line them up from _____ to ______

A

metaphase, largest to smallest

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17
Q

Humans have __ sets of __ chromosomes

A

2 sets of 23 chromosomes

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17
Q

T/F: The number of chromosomes and their length vary between species

A

TRUE

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18
Q

Each set has to have _____ chromosomes and would be different numbers on the karyotype

A

unique

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18
Q

Sunflower would be a tetraploid as it has _n

A

4n (4 sets of unique chromosomes)

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19
Q

Most plants are _____

A

polyploidy

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20
Q

Why study or quantify the genome?

A

Genome codes for what is going to happen in the cell

Basic comparisons between species

Insight into the evolution, function, and “complexity” of an organism

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21
Q

Genome size does ___ relate to how complex an organism is

A

not

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21
Q

A genome is all of the DNA in ____ COPY of an organism’s chromosomes

A

ONE (in one set)

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22
Q

Chromatids are identical DNA molecules attached at their _____

A

centromeres

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23
Q

IN G: DNA is a

A

double helix
It has polarity (one end is 5’ other is 3’)
Antiparallel

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24
Q

IN S: Replicate, now have

A

two helices

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25
Q

T/F Regardless of replication or division, the chromosome number is still the same

A

TRUE

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26
Q

_____ = number of unique nuclear chromosomes present in an organism

A

n-value

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27
Q

________ (ploidy) tells us the number of unique sets that are present in an organism

A

The coefficient of n

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28
Q

_____ represents the amount of DNA in one set of an organism’s nuclear chromosomes: genome size

A

C-value

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29
Q

C Value:
Quantity of base pairs or mass (______)

A

picograms

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30
Q

The_______ tells us how many times the entire genome is present in a cell (copies of the genome)

A

coefficient of C

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31
Q

____ of species remains constant

A

C Value

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32
Q

_____ is changing

A

Copy #

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33
Q

_____ DOES NOT CHANGE DURING THE CELL CYCLE

A

PLOIDY

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33
Q

___ implies nothing about C

A

n

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33
Q

One of the two identical halves of a duplicated chromosome

A

Chromatid

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34
Q

_____: The region where two chromatids are attached

A

Centromere

35
Q

______: Protective caps at the ends of chromosomes

A

Telomeres

36
Q

__: The number of unique sets of chromosomes in a cell.

A

n

36
Q

For humans, n=

A

23

37
Q

___: The amount of DNA in a cell, often expressed in terms of mass or the number of DNA molecules

A

C

38
Q

S phase: DNA replicates, so it remains __n but the C value doubles to _C

A

2n, 4C

38
Q

_______: Results in gametes with 2n, which can lead to polyploid offspring if fertilization occurs

A

Tetraplidu (4n)

39
Q

G1 phase: __n and __C

A

2n and 2C

40
Q

G2 phase: The cell is __n and __C (since the DNA has replicated, but chromosomes have not yet divided)

A

2n and 4C

40
Q

_______: Produces gametes with uneven chromosome distribution, leading to infertility or inviability due to imbalance

A

Triploidy (3n)

41
Q

After mitosis (M phase): Back to __n and __C (each daughter cell gets one set of chromosomes)

A

2n and 2C

41
Q

_______: Standards meiosis involves halving the chromosome number to produce haploid (n) gametes

A

Diploidy (2n)

41
Q

_________ refers to the observation that the genome size (C-value) does not correlate with organisms complexity

A

The C-value paradox

42
Q

DNA is a ______ molecule that forms a helical structure

A

double-stranded

43
Q

______: The building blocks of DNA, consisting of a sugar (deoxyribose). A phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, or Guanine)

A

Nucleotides

43
Q

The two strands of DNA run in ______ directions (5’ to 3’ and 3’ to 5’)

A

opposite (Antiparallel strands)

44
Q

Mechanisms that ensure the inheritance of sameness: (3)

A

-Semi-conservative replication
-Proofreading by DNA polymerase
-Mismatch repair

44
Q

_______: The unwound section of DNA where replication occurs

A

Replication bubble

44
Q

______: Synthesized continuously in the 5’ to 3’ direction, toward the replication fork

A

Leading strand

44
Q

A pairs with T via two ______, and G pairs with C via three ______

A

hydrogen bonds

45
Q

________: Synthesizes discontinuously in short fragments called Okazi fragments, away from the replication fork, and later joined by DNA ligase

A

Lagging strand

45
Q

_____: Short RNA primers are placed on the lagging strand (and once on the leading strand) to provide a starting point for DNA polymerase

A

Primers

45
Q

_______: A state in which a cell can no longer divide but remains metabolically active. This is often a response to DNA damage or the shortening of telomeres

A

Cell senescence

45
Q

_______: The maximum number of times a normal somatic cell can divide before reaching senescence, typically around 40-60 divisions in humans

A

Hayflick limit

46
Q

Cells reach senescence due to the progressive shortening of _______ with each replication cycle, which acts as a biological clock for cell division

A

telomeres

46
Q

Telomeres consist of repetitive nucleotide sequences, particularly ______ in vertebrates, repeated thousands of times at the ends of chromosomes

A

TTAGGG

46
Q

These TTAGGG sequences protect the end of ______ from degradation and prevent them from _____ with other chromosomes

A

chromosomes, fusing

46
Q

Why chromosomes shorten at each replication: DNA polymerase can only add nucleotides in the 5’ to 3’ direction, which creates an issue for the _____ strand.

A

lagging

46
Q

After removing RNA primers at the ends of chromosomes, there is no way to replace them with DNA, resulting in:

A

a small amount of DNA loss at each replication cycle

46
Q

_______: An enzyme that adds telomeric sequences (TTAGGG) to the ends of chromosomes, compensating for the DNA loss during replication

A

Telomerase

46
Q

Telomerase contains an ___ template that is complete to the telomeric sequence and acts as a reverse transcriptase to extend the telomeres

A

RNA

47
Q

Telomerase is most active in ____ cells, stem cells, and some ____ cells, allowing them to divide indefinitely without undergoing senescence

A

germ, cancer

48
Q

We inheritance sameness, meaning daughter cells look close to identical because of the way DNA replication occurs in the __ phase

A

S

49
Q

A distinct 3’ and 5’ end on each confers _____ (positional) on DNA backbones

A

polarity

49
Q

For a cell to divide, has to replicate its ______

A

genome

49
Q

________ has very high accuracy overall but is going to make some mistake

A

DNA polymerase

49
Q

DNA replication and cell mitosis : Inheritance of ______

A

sameness

50
Q

DNA polymerase needs preexisting ______ (RNA or DNA)

A

nucleotide

50
Q

3’ has a free ________ group
This is the group DNA polymerase needs to extend the strand

A

hydroxyl (OH)

50
Q

5’ has free ______
Cannot be extended by DNA polymerase

A

phosphate

51
Q

RNA has ___ DNA has T

A

U

51
Q

Two strands of double helix run _______

A

antiparallel

52
Q

Replication is ___-conservative

A

semi

53
Q

1 target of chemotherapy is the __ phase

One inhibits topoisomerase or bases

A

S

53
Q

Adult ____cells in the body have telomerase (lower levels)

A

stem

53
Q

DNA unwinds and each strand acts as a ____ for the synthesis of a new, complimentary, antiparallel strand

A

template

54
Q

What about the LAST bubble on the end of a chromosome? The _____ strand has copied over every single base in the template strand
But ______ still needs to copy all that over because it’s going to be removed by polymerase one

A

leading, lagging

54
Q

The_______ is what DNA polymerase reads off of

A

template strand

54
Q

_____ replicate one strand continuously, and one discontinuously (leading vs lagging)

A

Replisomes

54
Q

Replication “bubble” arises from two “____” created at one “origin”

A

forks

54
Q

Each time cell replicates, it loses some _____

A

telomerase

55
Q

______ protect you from losing sequences of genes

A

Telomeres

55
Q

In senescence cell can: remain in G1 and G0 and function, remain and not function, or ______

A

apoptosis

55
Q

It didn’t get filled up and will always be shorter because it needs more template and primer, doesn’t know what to do at end
That is why ______ comes to an end and extends

A

telomerase

55
Q

Eventually reaches critical length (reaches _______ ______)

A

hayflick limit

55
Q

Once it gets there, cell ______, meaning it will no longer replicate

A

senescence

55
Q

HOWEVER: telomerase helps maintain telomere length, Does not prevent it from shortening, just _______ it

A

extends

55
Q

Primers closer to ____

A

ORI

55
Q

T/F Male germ cells do not, but female oocytes do have telomerase

A

FALSE: Male germ cells do, but female oocytes do not

55
Q

_____ cells need telomerase to grow

A

Cancer

55
Q

Telomerase is an ____-dependent DNA polymerase

A

RNA

55
Q

List of mechanisms to ensure Inheritance of sameness: (3)

A

-Complimentary base pairing- A must match with T and C must match with G

-Semi-conservative mode of replication- DNA synthesis relies on a pre-existing template so each copy MUTS be made to match the existing template

-Proofreading - 3’ to 5’ exonuclease activity of DNA polymerase 3 that corrects errors made during replication

55
Q

Gene not activated in _____ cells, but cancer would turn it on

A

somatic

55
Q

Lots of telomerase During_______ ________ (very active in embryogenesis)

A

embryonic development

Biology 1001 (12 decks)

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