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Content Flashcards

1
Q

What is Anatomy?

A

It is the study of the structure of living things, from microscopic cells and molecules to whole organisms as large as whales.
Study of structure.

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2
Q

What is physiology?

A

Study of animal function.

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3
Q

What are the different levels of organisation in the human body?

A
  1. Chemical level (atoms and molecules).
  2. Cellular level.
  3. Tissue level.
  4. Organ level.
  5. System level.
  6. Organismal level.
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4
Q

What is a chemical level?

A

Smallest simplest building blocks which is an atom.
2 or more atoms are a molecule.

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5
Q

What is a cellular level?

A

A cell is the smallest independent functioning unit.

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6
Q

What is a tissue level?

A

It is a group of many cells that work together to perform a specific function.

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7
Q

What are the four basic types of tissue in the body?

A
  • Epithelial tissue.
  • Connective tissue.
  • Muscular tissue.
  • Nervous tissue.
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8
Q

What is an organ level?

A

Composed of 2 or more tissue types. Organ system is a group of organs that work together to perform major functions.
E.g. Stomach, heart, liver, lungs and brain.

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9
Q

What is a system level?

A

System consists of related organs that have a common function.
E.g. Digestive system, which breaks down and absorbs molecules in food.

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10
Q

What is an organismal level?

A

Largest level of organisation.
All systems combine to make up an organism.

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11
Q

What is an integumentary system?

A

Skin, hair and nails.

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12
Q

What is a skeletal system?

A

Bones and joints and cartilages.

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13
Q

What is a muscular system?

A

Skeletal muscle tissue and other smooth and cardiac.

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14
Q

What is a nervous system?

A

Brain, spinal cord, nerves and sense organs (eyes, ears).

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15
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A

Includes all glands and tissues that produce chemical regulators of body functions (hormones).

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16
Q

What is the cardiovascular system?

A
  • Blood.
  • Heart.
  • Blood vessels.
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17
Q

What is a lymphatic system?

A
  • Lymph.
  • Vessels.
  • Thymus.
  • Lymph.
  • Nodes
  • Tonsils.
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18
Q

What is a digestive system?

A
  • Anus.
  • Salivary glands.
  • Liver.
  • Gallbladder.
  • Pancreas.
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19
Q

What is a urinary system?

A
  • Kidneys.
  • Ureters.
  • Urinary bladder.
  • Urethra.
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20
Q

Reproductive system?

A

Gonads and associated organs.

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21
Q

What are the six important life processes?

A
  1. Metabolism.
  2. Responsiveness.
  3. Movement.
  4. Growth.
  5. Differentiation.
  6. Reproduction.
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22
Q

What is metabolism?

A

Sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body.

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23
Q

What is responsiveness?

A

Body’s ability to detect and respond to changes in its environment.

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24
Q

What is movement?

A

Includes motions of the whole body.

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25
Q

What is growth?

A

An increase in body size.

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26
Q

What is differentiation?

A

Process where cells become specialised.

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27
Q

What is reproduction?

A

Formation of new cells for growth, repair or replacement or production of a new individual.

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28
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

Maintenance of relatively stable conditions, ensures that the body’s internal environment remains constant.

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29
Q

The body is mainly under the control of 2 systems?

A
  • Nervous system ( detects changes from a balanced state and sends messages jn the form of nerve impulses to organs that counteract the change).
  • Endocrine system ( Corrects changes by secreting molecules called hormones into the blood).
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30
Q

What is a feedback system?

A

A cycle of events where the body is continually monitored, evaluated, changed, remonitored or reevaluated.

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31
Q

The 3 basic components make up a feedback system?

A
  • Receptor.
  • Control center.
  • Effector.
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32
Q

What is a negative feedback system?

A
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33
Q

What is a positive feedback system?

A
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34
Q

Prone?

A

Body is lying face down.

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35
Q

Supine?

A

Body is lying face up.

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36
Q

Superior?

A

Towards the top of body.

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37
Q

Inferior?

A

Towards the bottom of the body.

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38
Q

Medial?

A

Middle.

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39
Q

Lateral?

A

Away from the middle.

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40
Q

Proximal?

A

Close to.

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41
Q

Distal?

A

Away from (far).

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42
Q

Anterior?

A

Front of body.

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43
Q

Posterior?

A

Back of body.

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44
Q

Intermediate?

A

Between 2 structures.

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45
Q

Superficial?

A

Towards surface of body.

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46
Q

Deep (internal)?

A

Away from surface of body.

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47
Q

Ipsilateral?

A
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48
Q

Contralateral?

A
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49
Q

Saggital plane?

A

Divides body vertically into left and right.

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50
Q

Midsaggital?

A

Cut from middle, equal left and right.

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51
Q

Parasaggital?

A

Unequal cut.

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52
Q

Frontal plane?

A

Divides body into front and back.

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53
Q

Transverse?

A

Cuts body horizontally, top and bottom.

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54
Q

Oblique?

A

Cut at an angle.

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55
Q

What is a body cavity?

A

Spaces within the body that contain, protect, separate and support internal organs.

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56
Q

Different types of cavities?

A
  • Cranial cavities: Formed by skull (cranial) bones and contains the brain.
  • Vertebral: Formed by bones of the vertebral column and spinal cord.
  • Thoracic cavity: Chest cavity. 3 smaller cavities: pericardial and 2 pleural and the mediastinum.
  • Diaphragm: Sheet of muscle that separates thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity.
  • Abdominopelvic cavity: From diaphragm to groin. Upper portion is the abdominal cavity and the lower portion is the pelvic cavity.
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57
Q

What are the 4 basic types of tissue?

A
  1. Epithelial tissue
  2. Connective tissue
  3. Muscular tissue
  4. Nervous tissue
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58
Q

Features, location and function of epithelial tissue:

A
  1. Epithelial tissues have apical surfaces which is exposed to body cavities.
    They have lateral surfaces which face cells on either side.
    They have a basal surface which is deep.
    2.
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59
Q

Epithelial tissue may be divided into?

A

2 types:
- Covering and lining epithelium. (Outer covering of the skin and of some internal organs).
- Glandular epithelium.

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60
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61
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62
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63
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66
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69
Q

Connective tissue consist of?

A

2 types of basic elements:
- Cells.
- Extracellular matrix. (material between widely spaced cells).

70
Q

Functions of connective tissues?

A
  1. Binds together, supports and strengthens other body tissues.
  2. Protects and insulates internal organs.
71
Q

Different types of connective tissue cells?

A
  • Fibroblasts.
  • Macrophages.
  • Plasma cells.
  • Mast cells.
  • Adipocytes.
  • Ground substance.
  • Fibres.
72
Q

3 types of fibres are embedded in the extra cellular matrix between the cells?

A
  • Collagen fibres.
  • Elastic fibres.
  • Reticular fibres.
73
Q

Description and function of collagen fibre?

A
  • Strong, in parallel bundles, promotes flexibility.
  • Resist pulling forces.
74
Q

Description and function of elastic fibre?

A
  • Branched and forms network, elastin surrounded by fibrillin, stretchy.
  • Allows tissue to expand and recoil.
75
Q

Description and function of reticular fibre?

A
  • Collagen coated with glycoprotein. Branched networks round cells.
  • Support blood vessel walls, frames for soft organs.
76
Q

Classification of connective tissues?

A
  1. Loose connective tissue.
  2. Dense connective tissue.
77
Q

Loose connective tissue?

A
  • Loosely arranged among many cells.
  • Types of loose tissue are:
    Areolar
    Adipose
    Reticular
78
Q

Dense connective tissue?

A
  • Contains multiple thick and dense fibres (closely packed) but fewer cells than loose connective tissue.
  • There are three types:
    Dense regular
    Dense irregular
    Elastic
79
Q

Structures of connective tissues?

A
  • Cartilage.
  • Bones.
80
Q

Structure of cartilage?

A
  • Dense network of collagen or elastic fibers firmly embedded in sulfate.
  • Cells of mature cartilage are called chondrocytes.
    They occur singly or in groups called lacunae.
  • Since cartilage has no blood supply it heals poorly after an injury.
81
Q

3 types of cartilage?

A
  • Hyaline.
  • Fibrocartilage.
  • Elastic cartilage.
82
Q

Structures of bones?

A
  • Composed of lots of different connective tissues including bone and osseous.
  • Blood tissue and lymph are examples of liquid connective tissue that has a liquid extra cellular matrix.
83
Q

Bone tissue has several functions?

A
  • Supports soft tissues.
  • Protects delicate structures.
  • Helps generate movement.
  • Stores calcium and phosphorus.
84
Q

What does red bone marrow do?

A

Produces blood cells.

85
Q

What does yellow bone marrow do?

A

A site for triglycerides.

86
Q

Different types of membranes?

A
  • Mucous.
  • Serous.
  • Synovial.

-Cutaneous (skin).

87
Q

Mucous membranes?

A
  • It is a body cavity that opens directly to the exterior.
  • They line the entire digestive, respiratory and reproductive systems.
88
Q

Serous membranes?

A
  • Line a body cavity that does not open directly to the exterior .
  • Covers the organs that lie within the cavity.
89
Q

Synovial membranes?

A

Line the cavities of some joints.

90
Q

Muscle tissues?

A
  • Consists of elongated cells called muscle fibers that are highly specialised to generate force.
  • Because of this muscular tissue produces:
    Motion.
    Maintains posture.
    Generates heat.
91
Q

Muscular tissue is classified into 3 types:

A
  1. Skeletal muscle.
  2. Cardiac muscle- Forms the bulk of the wall of heart.
  3. Smooth muscle.
92
Q

Skeletal tissue?

A
  • Usually attached to bones of skeleton.
  • Multiple nucleuses.
  • Actin and myosin proteins arranged regularly in the cytoplasm of a muscle cell.
  • This creates stripes called striations.
  • Control how and when they move.
93
Q

Smooth muscle?

A

-Located in walls of hollow internal structures like blood vessels, airways to lungs, stomach, intestines, gallbladder and urinary bladder.
- Spindle shaped.
- Shorter than skeletal muscle fibers.
- Produce connective tissue, endomysium.
- No striations or sarcomeres.
- Actin and myosin present.

94
Q

Cardiac muscle?

A
  • Striated, organised into sarcomeres.
  • Shorter than skeletal muscle fibers.
  • One nucleus in central region of cell.
  • Many mitochondria and myoglobin (supply oxygen to muscle cells).
  • Connected to one another at their ends by intercalated discs.
95
Q

Nervous tissue consists of 2 types of cells?

A
  • Neurons.
    Sensitive to various stimuli.
    Convert stimuli to nerve impulses and conduct.
  • Neuroglia.
    Do not generate or conduct nerve impulses but have important protection and supportive functions.
96
Q

Neurons?

A
  • Cell body of neuron is called a soma which contains a nucleus and mitochondria.
  • Dendrites transfer the nerve impulse to the soma.
  • Axon carries action potential away to another excitable cell (responsive to stimulation).
97
Q

Neuroglia?

A
  • Astrocytes: Regukate ions concentration in intercellular space, uptake/breakdown some neurotransmitters and formation of blood brain barrier.
  • Microglia: Protect the nervous system against infection.
  • Oligodendrocyte: Produces myelin in the CNS (central nervous system).
  • Ependymal cells: Produce CSF (washes out impurities from brain).
98
Q

Tissue repair on homeostasis?

A
  • Inflammation: Standard initial response to injury.
  • Necrosis- Accdiental cell death, causes inflammation.
  • Tissue repair is the process that resolves worn out, damaged or dead cells.
  • New cells originate by cell division from the stroma.
  • Parenchymal cells accomplish repair, tissue regeneration is possible.
  • If fibroblasts need to come to repair tissue, they synthesise materials from scar tissue, a process called fibrosis.
99
Q

Ageing and tissues?

A
  • Tissues heal faster in the young.
  • Extracellular components of tissues like collagen and elastic fibers change with age.
  • Bones lose calcium and other minerals.
  • Fluid in fibrous cartilage disk decreases. Causing bending of spine.
  • Many tissues lose mass (this is a process called atrophy).
  • Blood vessels and airways become more rigid.
  • CNS loses mass. Nerves do not transit impulse at the same speed or frequency.
100
Q

Sjögren’s syndrome?

A
  • Dry eyes.
  • Swollen salivary glands.
  • Dry cough.
  • Dry mouth.
  • Fatigue.
  • Joint pain and stiffness.
  • Dryness in places.
101
Q

Integumentary system is composed of?

A
  • Skin.
  • Hair.
  • Oil and sweat glands.
  • Nails.
  • Sensory receptors.
102
Q

The skin consist of 2 parts?

A
  • Epidermis: Superficial thin portion made is epithelial tissue.
  • Dermis: Deeper, thicker portion made of dense irregular connective tissue.
  • Deeper than dermis but not part of skin is the subcutaneous (hypodermis).
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120
Q

Functions of hair and nail?

A

Protect the body.

121
Q

Functions of sweat glands?

A

Help regulate body temperature.

122
Q

Sebaceous glands?

A
  • Usually connected to hair follicles.
  • They produce sebum which moistens hairs and waterproofs the skin.
123
Q

What is a gland?

A

Single or groups of epithelial cells that secrete a substance.

124
Q

Glands associated with the skin?

A
  • Sebaceous.
  • Ceruminous glands- present in ear canal is a yellowish secretion called cerulean or earwax. Protects from dehydration.
  • Sudoriferous- Secrete salt and water along with sweat, helps lower body temperature.
125
Q

2 types of sweat glands?

A
  1. Apocrine: Foun mainly in skin of axilla (armpit)/groin.
  2. Eccrine: Almost everywhere like head palms.
126
Q

Nails?

A
  • Hard, dead, containing keratin cells.
  • Main parts are:
    Nail body, free edge, nail root, lunula, cuticle and nail matrix.
  • Nail matrix is close to nail root and cell diction results in new nails.
127
Q

5 major functions of skin:

A
  1. Body temperature regulation- Adjusts flow of blood in dermis (reducing blood flow will reserve heat when cold) and liberates (releases) sweat.
  2. Protection- Keratin in skin protects from heat, microbes etc. Lipids release by lamellar granules inhibit evaporation of water from skin surface.
  3. Cutaneous sensation- Include touch, pressure etc and pain.
  4. Excretion and absorption- Skin has a small ability to absorb and excrete chemical and toxins.
  5. Synthesis of vitamin D- Exposing skin to UV radiation activates vitamin D which ultimately aids in dietary calcium and phosphorus absorption in the intestines.
128
Q

When there is danger to skin, cells begin to heal to restore homeostasis?

A
  • Epidermal wound healing.
  • Deep wound healing.
129
Q

Epidermal healing?

A

Involves damage to epidermis only and stratum basale cells move into the wound to reproduce and create new layers.

130
Q

Deep healing?

A
  • Extends to dermis and lower.
  • Fibroblasts lay down collagen and forms scar tissue while epithelial cells replace scan with new epidermal tissue.
131
Q

When you age X integumentary system?

A
  • Collagen fibers decrease in number and stiffen.
  • Elastic fibers lose elasticity.
  • Fibroblasts- Which produces both collagen and elastic fibers, decreases in number causing wrinkles.
  • Less number of glands so less sebum so less sweat.
  • Hair thins and may stop growing.
  • Slower skin healing, less immune cells.
132
Q

Common disorders?

A
  • Skin cancer.
  • Normal mole and malignant melanoma.
  • Burns.
133
Q

3 types of skin cancer?

A
  1. Basal cell carcinoma: Tumors in cells in stratum basale and rarely spread to body.
  2. Squamous cell carcinoma: Arise from spinosum and have variable tendency to spread.
  3. Malignant: Arise from melanocytes and account for 2% of skin cancers.
    Metastasize= spread.
    Exposure to UV radiation may cause photosensitivity, reaction of skin.
134
Q

Burn?

A

Tissue damaged by excessive heat etc.
1st- Only epidermis damaged.
2nd- Epidermis and part of dermis, can cause blisters.
3rd- Most skin function lost damaged till subcutaneous layer.

135
Q

Six functions of skeletal system?

A
  • Support.
  • Protection.
  • Assistance in movement.
  • Mineral homeostasis.
  • Blood cell production.
  • Triglyceride storage.
136
Q

Classification of bones?

A
  • Long bones.
  • Short bones.
  • Irregular bones.
  • Flat bones.
137
Q

Long bones?

A
  • Greater length than width.
  • Shaft (middle part).
  • Variable number of ends.
  • Curved for strength.

Leg: Femur, tibia, fibula.
Arm: Humerus, ulna, radius.
Fingers and toes= Phalanges.

138
Q

Short bones?

A
  • Cuboid.
  • Nearly same length and width.
  • Most wrist and ankle bones.
139
Q

Irregular bones?

A
  • Complex shapes.
  • Vertebrae and some facial bones.
140
Q

Flat bones?

A
  • Thin.
  • Afford considerable protection.
  • Cranial bones, sternum, ribs shoulder blades (scapulae).
  • Sesamoid bone- Patella.
141
Q

Parts of a long bone?

A
  • Diaphysis: Bone shaft, main middle portion of bone.
  • Epiphyses: Ends of the bone.
  • Metaphyses: Region in mature bone where diaphysis meets epiphysis.
    Epiphyseal growth plate: Metaphysis contains this a layer of hyaline cartilage that allows diaphysis to grow in length.
    When bone growth stops in length, cartilage is replaced by bony structure called epiphyseal line.
142
Q

Parts of a long bone continued?

A
  • Articular cartilage: Thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the part of epiphysis.
  • Periosteum: Tough sheath of irregular tissue, surrounds bone surface when not covered by articular cartilage, allows bone to grow in diameter not length.
  • Medullary Cavity: Hollow space within diaphysis that contains fatty yellow bone marrow in adults.
  • Endosteum: Thin membrane that lines the medullary cavity.
143
Q

The extra cellular matrix is about?

A
  • 25% water.
  • 25% collagen fibres.
  • 50% crystallised mineral salts.
144
Q

Tissue hardening is a result of?

A

Mineral deposits in the dreamworld formed by college fines of extracellular matrix known as calcification.

145
Q

Bone hardness depends on?

A

Crystallised inorganic mineral salts.

146
Q

Bone flexibility depends on?

A

Collagen fibres.

147
Q

How many cell types are there in a bone?

A

4.

148
Q

What are the 4 types of cells in a bone?

A
  1. Osteoprogenitor- Stem cells that develop into osteoblasts.
  2. Osteoblasts- Synthesise and secrete the extracellular matrix that calcifies into ‘bone.’ (Initiates calcification).
  3. Osteocytes- Most numerous cells in bone tissue and they maintain bone tissues.
  4. Osteoclasts- Break down extracellular matrix to release nutrients, help bones grow and heal.
149
Q

Bone density? Compact bone.

A
  • Compact bone: Denser and arranged in osteons. Each osteon has a osteonic canal for blood supply and rings for concentric lamellae. Within the lamellae are tiny lacunae where osteocytes live.
150
Q

Bone density? Spongy bone.

A
  • Has no osteons and is arranged irregularly in traveculae. They cavities are filled with red bone marrow.

80% of skeleton is compact bone for strength and protection.
20% is spongy bone for lightness.

151
Q

What is ossification?

A

Bone formation.

152
Q

Bone formation occurs in____ principal situations?

A

4.

153
Q

What are the four situations?

A
  • Initial formation of bones in an embryo or fetus.
  • Growth of bones until adult sizes are reached.
  • Remodelling of bone (replacement of old bone tissue with new).
  • Repair of fractures.
154
Q

2 types of ossification?

A
  • Intramembrous: Bone forms directly from mesenchyme arranged in sheet like layers that look like membranes.
  • Endochondral: Bone forms with hyaline cartilage that develops from mesenchyme.
155
Q

Intramembranous ossification has 4 steps?

A
  1. Ossification centres- Where osteoblasts differentiate and begin secreting bone matrix.
  2. Calcification- Osteocytes extend out into the osteons canaliculi and deposit minerals that calcify (harden).
  3. Trabeculae formation- Creates spongy bone with abundant blood vessels and red bone marrow.
  4. Periosteum development- Around periphery of spongy bone creates a compact bone to surround the underlying spongy bone.
156
Q

Endochondral ossification replaces cartilage with bone matrix?

A
  • Cartilage model development as chondroblasts secrete cartilage to form cartilage model.
  • Cartilage model growth as matrix calcifies and chondroblasts die.
  • Primary ossification centre- Develops as a blood vessel stimulates cells to become osteoblasts. These replace cartilage matrix which bone matrix.

Body Systems (9 decks)

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