Content Flashcards
What is Anatomy?
It is the study of the structure of living things, from microscopic cells and molecules to whole organisms as large as whales.
Study of structure.
What is physiology?
Study of animal function.
What are the different levels of organisation in the human body?
- Chemical level (atoms and molecules).
- Cellular level.
- Tissue level.
- Organ level.
- System level.
- Organismal level.
What is a chemical level?
Smallest simplest building blocks which is an atom.
2 or more atoms are a molecule.
What is a cellular level?
A cell is the smallest independent functioning unit.
What is a tissue level?
It is a group of many cells that work together to perform a specific function.
What are the four basic types of tissue in the body?
- Epithelial tissue.
- Connective tissue.
- Muscular tissue.
- Nervous tissue.
What is an organ level?
Composed of 2 or more tissue types. Organ system is a group of organs that work together to perform major functions.
E.g. Stomach, heart, liver, lungs and brain.
What is a system level?
System consists of related organs that have a common function.
E.g. Digestive system, which breaks down and absorbs molecules in food.
What is an organismal level?
Largest level of organisation.
All systems combine to make up an organism.
What is an integumentary system?
Skin, hair and nails.
What is a skeletal system?
Bones and joints and cartilages.
What is a muscular system?
Skeletal muscle tissue and other smooth and cardiac.
What is a nervous system?
Brain, spinal cord, nerves and sense organs (eyes, ears).
What is the endocrine system?
Includes all glands and tissues that produce chemical regulators of body functions (hormones).
What is the cardiovascular system?
- Blood.
- Heart.
- Blood vessels.
What is a lymphatic system?
- Lymph.
- Vessels.
- Thymus.
- Lymph.
- Nodes
- Tonsils.
What is a digestive system?
- Anus.
- Salivary glands.
- Liver.
- Gallbladder.
- Pancreas.
What is a urinary system?
- Kidneys.
- Ureters.
- Urinary bladder.
- Urethra.
Reproductive system?
Gonads and associated organs.
What are the six important life processes?
- Metabolism.
- Responsiveness.
- Movement.
- Growth.
- Differentiation.
- Reproduction.
What is metabolism?
Sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body.
What is responsiveness?
Body’s ability to detect and respond to changes in its environment.
What is movement?
Includes motions of the whole body.
What is growth?
An increase in body size.
What is differentiation?
Process where cells become specialised.
What is reproduction?
Formation of new cells for growth, repair or replacement or production of a new individual.
What is homeostasis?
Maintenance of relatively stable conditions, ensures that the body’s internal environment remains constant.
The body is mainly under the control of 2 systems?
- Nervous system ( detects changes from a balanced state and sends messages jn the form of nerve impulses to organs that counteract the change).
- Endocrine system ( Corrects changes by secreting molecules called hormones into the blood).
What is a feedback system?
A cycle of events where the body is continually monitored, evaluated, changed, remonitored or reevaluated.
The 3 basic components make up a feedback system?
- Receptor.
- Control center.
- Effector.
What is a negative feedback system?
What is a positive feedback system?
Prone?
Body is lying face down.
Supine?
Body is lying face up.
Superior?
Towards the top of body.
Inferior?
Towards the bottom of the body.
Medial?
Middle.
Lateral?
Away from the middle.
Proximal?
Close to.
Distal?
Away from (far).
Anterior?
Front of body.
Posterior?
Back of body.
Intermediate?
Between 2 structures.
Superficial?
Towards surface of body.
Deep (internal)?
Away from surface of body.
Ipsilateral?
Contralateral?
Saggital plane?
Divides body vertically into left and right.
Midsaggital?
Cut from middle, equal left and right.
Parasaggital?
Unequal cut.
Frontal plane?
Divides body into front and back.
Transverse?
Cuts body horizontally, top and bottom.
Oblique?
Cut at an angle.
What is a body cavity?
Spaces within the body that contain, protect, separate and support internal organs.
Different types of cavities?
- Cranial cavities: Formed by skull (cranial) bones and contains the brain.
- Vertebral: Formed by bones of the vertebral column and spinal cord.
- Thoracic cavity: Chest cavity. 3 smaller cavities: pericardial and 2 pleural and the mediastinum.
- Diaphragm: Sheet of muscle that separates thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity.
- Abdominopelvic cavity: From diaphragm to groin. Upper portion is the abdominal cavity and the lower portion is the pelvic cavity.
What are the 4 basic types of tissue?
- Epithelial tissue
- Connective tissue
- Muscular tissue
- Nervous tissue
Features, location and function of epithelial tissue:
- Epithelial tissues have apical surfaces which is exposed to body cavities.
They have lateral surfaces which face cells on either side.
They have a basal surface which is deep.
2.
Epithelial tissue may be divided into?
2 types:
- Covering and lining epithelium. (Outer covering of the skin and of some internal organs).
- Glandular epithelium.
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Connective tissue consist of?
2 types of basic elements:
- Cells.
- Extracellular matrix. (material between widely spaced cells).
Functions of connective tissues?
- Binds together, supports and strengthens other body tissues.
- Protects and insulates internal organs.
Different types of connective tissue cells?
- Fibroblasts.
- Macrophages.
- Plasma cells.
- Mast cells.
- Adipocytes.
- Ground substance.
- Fibres.
3 types of fibres are embedded in the extra cellular matrix between the cells?
- Collagen fibres.
- Elastic fibres.
- Reticular fibres.
Description and function of collagen fibre?
- Strong, in parallel bundles, promotes flexibility.
- Resist pulling forces.
Description and function of elastic fibre?
- Branched and forms network, elastin surrounded by fibrillin, stretchy.
- Allows tissue to expand and recoil.
Description and function of reticular fibre?
- Collagen coated with glycoprotein. Branched networks round cells.
- Support blood vessel walls, frames for soft organs.
Classification of connective tissues?
- Loose connective tissue.
- Dense connective tissue.
Loose connective tissue?
- Loosely arranged among many cells.
- Types of loose tissue are:
Areolar
Adipose
Reticular
Dense connective tissue?
- Contains multiple thick and dense fibres (closely packed) but fewer cells than loose connective tissue.
- There are three types:
Dense regular
Dense irregular
Elastic
Structures of connective tissues?
- Cartilage.
- Bones.
Structure of cartilage?
- Dense network of collagen or elastic fibers firmly embedded in sulfate.
- Cells of mature cartilage are called chondrocytes.
They occur singly or in groups called lacunae. - Since cartilage has no blood supply it heals poorly after an injury.
3 types of cartilage?
- Hyaline.
- Fibrocartilage.
- Elastic cartilage.
Structures of bones?
- Composed of lots of different connective tissues including bone and osseous.
- Blood tissue and lymph are examples of liquid connective tissue that has a liquid extra cellular matrix.
Bone tissue has several functions?
- Supports soft tissues.
- Protects delicate structures.
- Helps generate movement.
- Stores calcium and phosphorus.
What does red bone marrow do?
Produces blood cells.
What does yellow bone marrow do?
A site for triglycerides.
Different types of membranes?
- Mucous.
- Serous.
- Synovial.
-Cutaneous (skin).
Mucous membranes?
- It is a body cavity that opens directly to the exterior.
- They line the entire digestive, respiratory and reproductive systems.
Serous membranes?
- Line a body cavity that does not open directly to the exterior .
- Covers the organs that lie within the cavity.
Synovial membranes?
Line the cavities of some joints.
Muscle tissues?
- Consists of elongated cells called muscle fibers that are highly specialised to generate force.
- Because of this muscular tissue produces:
Motion.
Maintains posture.
Generates heat.
Muscular tissue is classified into 3 types:
- Skeletal muscle.
- Cardiac muscle- Forms the bulk of the wall of heart.
- Smooth muscle.
Skeletal tissue?
- Usually attached to bones of skeleton.
- Multiple nucleuses.
- Actin and myosin proteins arranged regularly in the cytoplasm of a muscle cell.
- This creates stripes called striations.
- Control how and when they move.
Smooth muscle?
-Located in walls of hollow internal structures like blood vessels, airways to lungs, stomach, intestines, gallbladder and urinary bladder.
- Spindle shaped.
- Shorter than skeletal muscle fibers.
- Produce connective tissue, endomysium.
- No striations or sarcomeres.
- Actin and myosin present.
Cardiac muscle?
- Striated, organised into sarcomeres.
- Shorter than skeletal muscle fibers.
- One nucleus in central region of cell.
- Many mitochondria and myoglobin (supply oxygen to muscle cells).
- Connected to one another at their ends by intercalated discs.
Nervous tissue consists of 2 types of cells?
- Neurons.
Sensitive to various stimuli.
Convert stimuli to nerve impulses and conduct. - Neuroglia.
Do not generate or conduct nerve impulses but have important protection and supportive functions.
Neurons?
- Cell body of neuron is called a soma which contains a nucleus and mitochondria.
- Dendrites transfer the nerve impulse to the soma.
- Axon carries action potential away to another excitable cell (responsive to stimulation).
Neuroglia?
- Astrocytes: Regukate ions concentration in intercellular space, uptake/breakdown some neurotransmitters and formation of blood brain barrier.
- Microglia: Protect the nervous system against infection.
- Oligodendrocyte: Produces myelin in the CNS (central nervous system).
- Ependymal cells: Produce CSF (washes out impurities from brain).
Tissue repair on homeostasis?
- Inflammation: Standard initial response to injury.
- Necrosis- Accdiental cell death, causes inflammation.
- Tissue repair is the process that resolves worn out, damaged or dead cells.
- New cells originate by cell division from the stroma.
- Parenchymal cells accomplish repair, tissue regeneration is possible.
- If fibroblasts need to come to repair tissue, they synthesise materials from scar tissue, a process called fibrosis.
Ageing and tissues?
- Tissues heal faster in the young.
- Extracellular components of tissues like collagen and elastic fibers change with age.
- Bones lose calcium and other minerals.
- Fluid in fibrous cartilage disk decreases. Causing bending of spine.
- Many tissues lose mass (this is a process called atrophy).
- Blood vessels and airways become more rigid.
- CNS loses mass. Nerves do not transit impulse at the same speed or frequency.
Sjögren’s syndrome?
- Dry eyes.
- Swollen salivary glands.
- Dry cough.
- Dry mouth.
- Fatigue.
- Joint pain and stiffness.
- Dryness in places.
Integumentary system is composed of?
- Skin.
- Hair.
- Oil and sweat glands.
- Nails.
- Sensory receptors.
The skin consist of 2 parts?
- Epidermis: Superficial thin portion made is epithelial tissue.
- Dermis: Deeper, thicker portion made of dense irregular connective tissue.
- Deeper than dermis but not part of skin is the subcutaneous (hypodermis).
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Functions of hair and nail?
Protect the body.
Functions of sweat glands?
Help regulate body temperature.
Sebaceous glands?
- Usually connected to hair follicles.
- They produce sebum which moistens hairs and waterproofs the skin.
What is a gland?
Single or groups of epithelial cells that secrete a substance.
Glands associated with the skin?
- Sebaceous.
- Ceruminous glands- present in ear canal is a yellowish secretion called cerulean or earwax. Protects from dehydration.
- Sudoriferous- Secrete salt and water along with sweat, helps lower body temperature.
2 types of sweat glands?
- Apocrine: Foun mainly in skin of axilla (armpit)/groin.
- Eccrine: Almost everywhere like head palms.
Nails?
- Hard, dead, containing keratin cells.
- Main parts are:
Nail body, free edge, nail root, lunula, cuticle and nail matrix. - Nail matrix is close to nail root and cell diction results in new nails.
5 major functions of skin:
- Body temperature regulation- Adjusts flow of blood in dermis (reducing blood flow will reserve heat when cold) and liberates (releases) sweat.
- Protection- Keratin in skin protects from heat, microbes etc. Lipids release by lamellar granules inhibit evaporation of water from skin surface.
- Cutaneous sensation- Include touch, pressure etc and pain.
- Excretion and absorption- Skin has a small ability to absorb and excrete chemical and toxins.
- Synthesis of vitamin D- Exposing skin to UV radiation activates vitamin D which ultimately aids in dietary calcium and phosphorus absorption in the intestines.
When there is danger to skin, cells begin to heal to restore homeostasis?
- Epidermal wound healing.
- Deep wound healing.
Epidermal healing?
Involves damage to epidermis only and stratum basale cells move into the wound to reproduce and create new layers.
Deep healing?
- Extends to dermis and lower.
- Fibroblasts lay down collagen and forms scar tissue while epithelial cells replace scan with new epidermal tissue.
When you age X integumentary system?
- Collagen fibers decrease in number and stiffen.
- Elastic fibers lose elasticity.
- Fibroblasts- Which produces both collagen and elastic fibers, decreases in number causing wrinkles.
- Less number of glands so less sebum so less sweat.
- Hair thins and may stop growing.
- Slower skin healing, less immune cells.
Common disorders?
- Skin cancer.
- Normal mole and malignant melanoma.
- Burns.
3 types of skin cancer?
- Basal cell carcinoma: Tumors in cells in stratum basale and rarely spread to body.
- Squamous cell carcinoma: Arise from spinosum and have variable tendency to spread.
- Malignant: Arise from melanocytes and account for 2% of skin cancers.
Metastasize= spread.
Exposure to UV radiation may cause photosensitivity, reaction of skin.
Burn?
Tissue damaged by excessive heat etc.
1st- Only epidermis damaged.
2nd- Epidermis and part of dermis, can cause blisters.
3rd- Most skin function lost damaged till subcutaneous layer.
Six functions of skeletal system?
- Support.
- Protection.
- Assistance in movement.
- Mineral homeostasis.
- Blood cell production.
- Triglyceride storage.
Classification of bones?
- Long bones.
- Short bones.
- Irregular bones.
- Flat bones.
Long bones?
- Greater length than width.
- Shaft (middle part).
- Variable number of ends.
- Curved for strength.
Leg: Femur, tibia, fibula.
Arm: Humerus, ulna, radius.
Fingers and toes= Phalanges.
Short bones?
- Cuboid.
- Nearly same length and width.
- Most wrist and ankle bones.
Irregular bones?
- Complex shapes.
- Vertebrae and some facial bones.
Flat bones?
- Thin.
- Afford considerable protection.
- Cranial bones, sternum, ribs shoulder blades (scapulae).
- Sesamoid bone- Patella.
Parts of a long bone?
- Diaphysis: Bone shaft, main middle portion of bone.
- Epiphyses: Ends of the bone.
- Metaphyses: Region in mature bone where diaphysis meets epiphysis.
Epiphyseal growth plate: Metaphysis contains this a layer of hyaline cartilage that allows diaphysis to grow in length.
When bone growth stops in length, cartilage is replaced by bony structure called epiphyseal line.
Parts of a long bone continued?
- Articular cartilage: Thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the part of epiphysis.
- Periosteum: Tough sheath of irregular tissue, surrounds bone surface when not covered by articular cartilage, allows bone to grow in diameter not length.
- Medullary Cavity: Hollow space within diaphysis that contains fatty yellow bone marrow in adults.
- Endosteum: Thin membrane that lines the medullary cavity.
The extra cellular matrix is about?
- 25% water.
- 25% collagen fibres.
- 50% crystallised mineral salts.
Tissue hardening is a result of?
Mineral deposits in the dreamworld formed by college fines of extracellular matrix known as calcification.
Bone hardness depends on?
Crystallised inorganic mineral salts.
Bone flexibility depends on?
Collagen fibres.
How many cell types are there in a bone?
4.
What are the 4 types of cells in a bone?
- Osteoprogenitor- Stem cells that develop into osteoblasts.
- Osteoblasts- Synthesise and secrete the extracellular matrix that calcifies into ‘bone.’ (Initiates calcification).
- Osteocytes- Most numerous cells in bone tissue and they maintain bone tissues.
- Osteoclasts- Break down extracellular matrix to release nutrients, help bones grow and heal.
Bone density? Compact bone.
- Compact bone: Denser and arranged in osteons. Each osteon has a osteonic canal for blood supply and rings for concentric lamellae. Within the lamellae are tiny lacunae where osteocytes live.
Bone density? Spongy bone.
- Has no osteons and is arranged irregularly in traveculae. They cavities are filled with red bone marrow.
80% of skeleton is compact bone for strength and protection.
20% is spongy bone for lightness.
What is ossification?
Bone formation.
Bone formation occurs in____ principal situations?
4.
What are the four situations?
- Initial formation of bones in an embryo or fetus.
- Growth of bones until adult sizes are reached.
- Remodelling of bone (replacement of old bone tissue with new).
- Repair of fractures.
2 types of ossification?
- Intramembrous: Bone forms directly from mesenchyme arranged in sheet like layers that look like membranes.
- Endochondral: Bone forms with hyaline cartilage that develops from mesenchyme.
Intramembranous ossification has 4 steps?
- Ossification centres- Where osteoblasts differentiate and begin secreting bone matrix.
- Calcification- Osteocytes extend out into the osteons canaliculi and deposit minerals that calcify (harden).
- Trabeculae formation- Creates spongy bone with abundant blood vessels and red bone marrow.
- Periosteum development- Around periphery of spongy bone creates a compact bone to surround the underlying spongy bone.
Endochondral ossification replaces cartilage with bone matrix?
- Cartilage model development as chondroblasts secrete cartilage to form cartilage model.
- Cartilage model growth as matrix calcifies and chondroblasts die.
- Primary ossification centre- Develops as a blood vessel stimulates cells to become osteoblasts. These replace cartilage matrix which bone matrix.
