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Compendium 11 Flashcards

1
Q

Describe DNA

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid
Contain genetic information in nucleus
Approx 23000 genes in human genome - genes are the codes for proteins
Only 1.5% DNA due to genes, 98.5% is non-coding which includes regulatory substances, introns and repeat elements which are needed for regulating genes and protein expression

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2
Q

Describe structure of DNA

A 
Double stranded (helix) 
Sugar phosphate backbone 
Complementary nitrogenous bases 
Adenine - thymine 
Guanine - cytosine
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3
Q

How is DNA organised

A

DNA wrapped around proteins called HISTONES
HISTONES and DNA bundled together are called chromatin
Chromatin twists around to make chromosomes (occurs only when cells divides)

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4
Q

How many chromosomes do somatic cells have

A

Each somatic cell has 2 copies of each chromosome - one inherited from mum, other inherited from dad

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5
Q

What are homologous chromosomes

A

The maternal and paternal chromosomes of a pair are called homologous chromosomes
And make a homologous pair

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6
Q

Difference between autosomal and sex chromosomes

A

Humans have 22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes
1 pair of sex chromosomes

Women - 2 X
Men - 1 X 1 Y

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7
Q

What is diploid and haploid

A

Gametes only have 1 chromosome of each homologous pair (23 chromosomes) so we called HAPLOID

Somatic cells have 46 chromosomes (homologous pairs) and are allied DIPLOID

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8
Q

What is a karotype

A

When cells divide the chromosomes become easier to see and can be arranged into pairs - this kind of map is karotype

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9
Q

What are genetics

A

Study of hereditary

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10
Q

What is a gene

A

Piece of DNA that codes protein

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11
Q

What is an allele

A

Different forms of the same gene - one inherited from dad, one from mum for every gene

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12
Q

What is a genotype

A

The actual gene (allele)

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13
Q

What is a phenotype

A

Persons appearance

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14
Q

What is a locus

A

Location of gene on a chromosome

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15
Q

What is a proteome

A

Cells constantly synthesise different proteins needed for cell functions or to be exported
DNA contains instructions to make proteins
Not all cells make all proteins
A proteome of a cell is all the proteins that a cell makes and proteomics is the study of this

Cells make different proteins but all cells contain the same DNA- how they use it and what parts they use is what differs

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16
Q

What is protein synthesis

A
  1. Transcription - DNA converted to RNA
  2. Translation - RNA converted to protein

The flow of DNA to RNA and then protein is called the central dogma

17
Q

List steps of transcription

A

1) DNA strand (chromatin) uncoils (only template strand is used)
2) RNA polymerase enzyme (transcription factor) initiates transcription by binding to promoter region on DNA strand
3) polymerase catalyses formation of mRNA chain by using DNA strand as a template (copies info) - called RNA transcript and follows complementary base sequencing (A with U, G with C)
4) mRNA will end at a terminator sequence
5) mRNA exists nucleus through nuclear pores to cytoplasm

18
Q

How is RNA different to DNA

A

Sugar: ribose instead of deoxyribose
Single stranded
Contains uracil instead of thymine

RNA acts as an intermediary between DNA and protein

19
Q

What three types of RNA are transcribed from DNA

A

1) messenger RNA (mRNA): translated in cytoplasm to make proteins
2) ribosomal RNA (rRNA): together with ribosomal proteins it makes up the ribosomes
3) transfer RNA (tRNA): each tRNA can bind specifically to one of the 20 different amino acids used to build proteins, important in translating mRNA into amino acid peptide

20
Q

List steps of translation

A

Occurs in cytoplasm by ribosomes on rough endoplasmic reticulum or free within cytoplasm

1) mRNA carries genetic info from hue clubs to ribosomes
2) the sequence is read by translational machinery in the ribosome, in lots of three nucleotides (a codon)
3) translation starts at codon AUG of each gene in the mRNA - each codon = specific amino acid
4) as each codon is read, a tRNA with a complementary sequence (anticodon) binds to each triplet (the tRNA carries the amino acid specified by the codon)

5 amino acid joined together by peptide bonds in sequence specified by mRNA to make a protein

May then move to Golgi apparatus

21
Q

Explain codons and amino acids

A

There are 64 possible codons in mRNA and only 29 naturally occurring amino acids
Some amino acids are specified by only one codon (e.g. Methionine- AUG)
Others specified by up to sex different codons (e.g. Leucine- UUA, UUG, CUU…)
Three codons do not code for an amino acid but signal termination of peptide chain (tRNA chain doesn’t come over)
Stop codons - UAG, UAA, UGA

22
Q

What is a primary protein structure

A

Sequence of amino acids linked by peptide bonds

23
Q

What is a secondary protein sequence

A

Proteins fold to form secondary structures due to side chains
Two regular folding patterns are seen : alpha helices and beta pleated

24
Q

What is a tertiary protein structure

A

The 3D shape determined by folding secondary structure - held together by bonds between amino acids that may be far apart in the actual chain

25
What is a quaternary protein structure
Combined 3D structure of two or more polypeptide chains e.g. Haemoglobin
26
What are fibrous and globular protein
Globular: polypeptide chain folds up into compact shape, usually water soluble, mobile, chemically active (most enzymes), play crucial role in nearly all biological process e.g. Haemoglobin Fibrous: simple, 3D elongated structures, insoluble and stable in water, mechanical support and tensile strength, abundant outside cell often in matrix between cells, e.g. Collagen, keratin, elastin
27
Describe difference between somatic cells, germ cells and gametes
Somatic: diploid, most body cells, mitosis Germ cell: give rise to gametes, testes and ovaries, meiosis Gamete: cells fuse during reproduction, haploid so when speed fertilisers egg the resulting embryo has correct DNA amount
28
What are the main steps of cell division
Interphase (cells spend most of life) Mitosis Cytokinesis (division of cell cytoplasm)
29
Explain interphase
1. g1 phase- normal growth and metabolic activity 2. S phase- DNA in each 46 chromosomes is replicated- makes two identical copies of its DNA so during division one copy goes to each daughter cell) 3. G2 phase- preparing for division: centrioles divided and doubled, spindle fibres formed that extend from centrioles and organelles and proteins doubled.
30
List steps of mitosis
1. Prophase: - chromatin condenses into pairs of chromatids called chromosomes which consist of 2 sister chromatids connected by centromere - centrioles migrate to ends of cell where spindle fibres will attach to centromeres - nuclear envelope and nucleolus disintegrates 2. Metaphase - chromosomes are aligned at nuclear equator 3. Anaphase - spindle fibres attached to centromeres separate the chromatids - 2 identical sets of chromosomes move to separate ends of cell, cytokinesis begins 4. Telophase - nuclear envelope reforms around each chromosome set - chromosomes decondense into chromatin - cytokinesis continues
31
Explain meiosis
Germ cells division Involves 2 cell divisions Produces 4 genetically different daughter cells (haploid as DNA only replicates once but cell divides twice) Resulting gametes can unite to form a zygote
32
List steps of meiosis
Occurs after interphase and DNA replication 1. Early prophase I: - charismatic pairs joined by centromere 2. Middle prophase I: - homologous chromosomes begin to line up to form a synapse which causes crosses over and sharing of genetic information from two different chromatid strands 3. Metaphase I: - homologous chromosomes (23 pairs) align at cell centre - random assortment of homologous chromosomes occur 4. Anaphase I: - homologous chromosomes move apart to opposite sides of cell caused from pulling of spindle fibres 5. Telophase I: - new nuclei from and the cell divides into 2 genetically different daughter cells 6. Prophase II: - centrioles at each end with spindle fibre extending - nuclear envelope disintegrates - each chromosome consists of 2 chromatids 7. Metaphase II: - 23 chromosomes align individually along cell centre 8. Anaphase II: - sister chromatids of chromosomes separate and each is now called a chromosome - achieved by pulling spindle fibres 9. Telophase II: - new nuclear envelope form around chromosomes - cytoplasm begins to separate - the cell divides to form 4 daughter cells with haploid number of chromosomes

HUMB1000 (13 decks)

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