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Circulatory system, Respiratory system and excretory system Flashcards

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1
Q

Homeostasis

A

homeostasis is the state of steady internal, physical, and chemical conditions maintained by living systems.

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2
Q

The simple animals lacking specialized system for the transport and distribution are

A

Cnidarians, Flat worms and nematodes
In these animals materials exchange through direct diffusion through the body surface

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3
Q

Substances that are transported in the body include

A

respiratory gases (oxygen, carbon
dioxide), nutrients (glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, etc.), waste products of
metabolism (urea, ammonia, etc), hormones and antibodies.

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4
Q

Interstitial fluid

A

Fluid found in the spaces around cells. It comes from substances that leak out of blood capillaries

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5
Q

open circulatory system

A

There is no distinction between the circulatory fluid and the interstitial fluid surrounding cells.
Heamolymph pumped from the heart bathes the body tissues directly. Back flow of heamolymph takes place via the pore (ostia.)

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6
Q

The open circulatory system has evolved in some invertebrate phyla such as

A

Arthropoda and Mollusca (some mollusc groups)

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7
Q

Back flow of the hemolymph takes place via

A

the pores (ostia)

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8
Q

The closed circulatory system has evolved in

A

vertebrates and invertebrates such as Annelids

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9
Q

Single circulation

A

During single circulation, in a complete circulation through the entire body, blood passes through the heart only once
In animals that demonstrate single circulation, posses two chambers in the heart. They are atrium and ventricle.
e.g.: Bony fishes, Cartilaginous fishes such as rays and sharks.

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10
Q

Double circulation

A

During double circulation, in a complete circulation through the entire body, blood passes through the heart twice.
e.g. Amphibians, Reptiles, Aves, Mammals

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11
Q

What is meant by incomplete double circulation

A

Amphibians contains a 3 chambered heart with 2 atria and 1 ventricle.
Some reptiles contains a 3 chambered heart with an partally separated ventricle.
In these animals O2 rich blood and O2 poor blood are mixed in the heart and hence it is known as incomplete double circulation.

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12
Q

3 layers of veins and arteries

A

Inner layer tunica intima containing simple squamous cells

Middle layer tunica media consisting of collagen fibres, elastic fibres and smooth muscles.

Outer layer tunica externa consisting mostly of collagen fibres.

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13
Q

Blood capillaries forms a network over all the tissues in the body except

A

Cornea and cartilage

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14
Q

Flow rate of blood and lymph

A

blood - 80 cm3s-1
lymph - 100 cm3h-1

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15
Q

Blood volume and mass in a human

A

5 dm3
5 kg

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16
Q

Exceptions of the general functions of veins and arteries

A

Arteries usually carry O2 rich blood however pulmonary arteries and umbilical artery transport O2 poor blood.
Usually veins carry O2 poor blood but pulmonary veins and umbilical veins transport O2 rich blood.

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17
Q

Largest artery and vein

A

Largest artery is the aorta while the largest vein is the inferior vena cava.

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18
Q

Differences between arteries and veins

A

Arteries have thick walls with muscle tissue. Veins have thinner walls and use valves to keep your blood flowing

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19
Q

The conducting system of the heart consists of

A

• SA node (Sinoatrial node)
• AV node (Atrioventricular node)
• Atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His), bundle branches and Purkinje fibres

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20
Q

Heart beat responds to a number of circulating factors including

A

Autonomic nervous system, hormones such as adrenaline and thyroxine and temperature.

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21
Q

SA node / Sinoatrial node

A

SA node is a small mass of specialized cells. It lies in the myocardium of the right atrium near the opening of the superior vena cava. The stimulus for contraction of the heart originates in the ‘SA node’. The SA node initiates the heart beat and sets the rhythm of the heart beat so it is called the pace maker.

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22
Q

SA node and AV node contains which type of cells

A

Neuromuscular

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23
Q

AV node

A

It is situated between wall of the left and right atria. The AV node transmits the electrical signals from the atria into the
ventricles.

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24
Q

Atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His), bundle branches and Purkinje fibres

A

The AV bundle branches and the Purkinje fibers transmit electrical impulse from the AV node to the apex of the myocardium. As a result of this impulse, wave of ventricular contractions begin. Then the contraction sweeps upwards and outwards pumping blood simultaneously into the pulmonary artery and the aorta.

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25
Q

Complete cardiac cycle lasts for

A

0.8 seconds
1. Atrial systole – 0.1 s
2. Ventricular systole - 0.3 s
3. Complete cardiac diastole – 0.4 s

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26
Q

At rest the healthy adult heart is likely to beat at a rate of

A

60- 80 beats per minute.

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27
Q

stroke volume

A

During a single contraction the amount of blood pumped by a ventricle is called the stroke volume which is about 70 ml

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28
Q

Why is there no wave for atrial repolarization in the ECG

A

As atrial repolarization and ventricular depolarization occurs at the same time weak atrial repolarization is masked by the powerful ventricular depolarization.

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29
Q

Systolic pressure

A

Systolic pressure is the pressure produced within the arterial system when the left ventricle contracts and pushes blood into the aorta. At rest , systolic pressure in a normal healthy adult systolic pressure is about 120 mmHg

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30
Q

Diastolic pressure

A

Diastolic blood pressure is the blood pressure within the arteries following ejection of blood at complete cardiac diastole(when the heart is at rest. In a normal healthy adult diastolic pressure is about 80 mmHg.

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31
Q

What causes pulses in arteries

A

The difference between systolic and the diastolic pressure causes pulses in arteries and hence this difference is referred to as the pulse pressure.

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32
Q

Arterial blood pressure is measured by

A

sphygmomanometer

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33
Q

Consequences of hypertension are

A

kidney damage, adrenal gland disorders, heart attack (because of the increased heart rate and cardiac contraction), stroke(caused by cerebral haemorrhage), damaged blood vessles which can lead to death

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34
Q

Causes of hypotension are

A

shock, Dengue hemorrhage fever, standing up suddenly from sitting or lying position, over bleeding/ hemorrhage condition, fasting, low nutrition etc

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35
Q

Consequences of hypotension are

A

Low blood pressure leads to inadequate blood supply to the brain. Depending on the cause unconsciousness may be brief (fainting) or prolonged (coma) possibly causing death.

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36
Q

Stroke

A

Similarly blockage due to atherosclerosis or rupture of arteries supplying blood to the brain (carotid arteries) may cause the death of nervous tissue due to lack of oxygen and nutrients. This is refered to as stroke.

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37
Q

2 commonly used surgical treatments for coronary obstructions

A

Angioplasty (placing of a stent)
Coronary artery bypass grafting

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38
Q

Lymphatic system is composed of

A

It consists of lymph vessels through which lymph
travels. Other structure in the lymphatic system includes lymph nodes, lymphoid tissues (tonsils) and lymphoid organs (e.g. spleen and thymus)

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39
Q

Lymph is circulated back to the circulatory system

A

At the base of the neck where lymph is pushed into the subclavian vein via 2 large ducts

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40
Q

Functions of human lymphatic system

A

e tissue drainage to maintain the blood volume in the blood circulatory system, absorption of fat and fat soluble vitamins from the small intestine and for immune responses.

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41
Q

lipoprotein

A

Lipoproteins are substances made of protein and fat that carry cholesterol through your bloodstream. There are two main types of cholesterol: High-density lipoprotein (HDL), or “good” cholesterol. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL), or “bad” cholesterol

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42
Q

Respiratory pigments

A

Respiratory pigments are organic compounds which can combine with oxygen where the partial pressure of oxygen is high and release oxygen where partial pressure of oxygen is low.

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43
Q

Haemoglobin

A

present in blood of human, other vertebrate and annelids. Fe is present (red)

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44
Q

Haemocyanin

A

present in hemolymph of arthropods and molluscs.
Cu (blue)

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45
Q

Chlorocruorin

A

present in the blood of many annelids. Fe (green)

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46
Q

Haemoerythrin

A

present in the blood of marine invertebrates. (some annelids). Fe is present (red)

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47
Q

Myoglobin

A

present in vertebrate muscles. Fe is present (red)
Myoglobin present in the muscle tissue has an oxygen storage function.

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48
Q

Bone marrow can be found in bones such as

A

Ribs, sternum, vertebrae and pelvis

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49
Q

Which hormone stimulates the production of red blood cells

A

Erythropoietin (from kidneys)

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50
Q

Red blood cells (erythrocytes)

A

Small biconcave disk like cells. Mature erythrocytes lacks nuclei. Lacks mitochondria and produces ATP by anaerobic respiration.
120 days of life span.

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51
Q

White blood cells (leukocytes)

A

Five types of leukocytes. They are Basophils, Lymphocytes, Eosinophils, Neutrophils and monocytes. Main functions of leukocytes are body defense, phagocytic engulfing and digesting microorganisms. Lymphocytes develop into T cells and B cells.

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52
Q

Platelets

A

Derived from bone marrow cells. Do not have a nuclei and plays major role in blood clotting.

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53
Q

Blood plasma

A

Contains inorganic ions in dissolved forms, plasma proteins such as albumin, antibodies and fibrinogen, nutrients, metabolic wastes, respiratory gases and hormones.

Protein concentration in plasma is higher than in interstitial fluid

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54
Q

pH of human blood

A

7.4

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55
Q

Serum

A

When clotting factors are removed from the plasma it is called serum.

56
Q

Which substance prevents clotting

A

Heparin

Prevents conversion of prothrombin to thrombin and fibrinogen to fibrin

Used as an anticoagulant

57
Q

A person’s first red blood cells are formed in the

A

Liver

58
Q

Mass of an adult human heart

A

300g

59
Q

Osmoregulation

A

Is the process through which organisms control solute concentration and water balance

60
Q

Excretion

A

The removal of the nitrogenous metabolite and other metabolic waste products from the body is called excretion

61
Q

Ammonia is produced during digestion of which organic compounds

A

Nuclei acids and proteins

62
Q

Nitrogenous excretory products of animals are

A

ammonia, uric acid and urea

63
Q

Ammonia in the process of excretion

A

It is the most toxic nitrogenous excretory product and it is the 1st nitrogenous excretory product formed in all organisms.

64
Q

Animals excreting ammonia

A

bony fishes, many aquatic invertebrates and aquatic amphibians specially tadpoles

65
Q

Urea in the process of excretion

A

In some animals ammonia is converted to urea in the liver by the active process of ornithine cycle

66
Q

Animals excreting urea

A

Mammals, adult amphibians and sharks

67
Q

Animals excreting uric acid

A

birds, reptiles, land snails and insects

68
Q

Ascending order of energy cost of excretory products

A

Ammonia< urea< uric acid

69
Q

Descending order of toxicity of excretory products

A

Ammonia>Urea>Uric acid

70
Q

Descending order of water loss of excretory products

A

Ammonia>Urea>Uric acid

71
Q

Green glands are used for excretion by

A

Two large glands found ventrally in the head anterior to the oesophagus.
Crustaceans

72
Q

Sweat glands

A

Coiled tubular glands found in the dermis and is connected to the sweat duct which opens as a pore in the surface of the skin.
Found in mammals only

73
Q

Salt glands

A

Paired glands found near the eyes which secretes excess salt
Marine birds and marine reptiles

74
Q

Which excretory structures are not opend to the outside directly

A

Malphigian tubules

75
Q

Function of kidneys

A

Produces urine to excrete waste products from the body while maintaining osmotic balance and acid-base balance.

76
Q

Human urinary system consists of

A

two kidneys, two ureters, urinary bladder and
urethra

77
Q

Location of kidneys

A

Found in the posterior abdominal wall each on either side of the vertebral column, behind the peritoneum and below the diaphragm

Peritoneum is a thin membrane which lines the inner surface of the abdominal cavity.

Right kidney is located slightly Lower than the left kideney

78
Q

Gross structure of the kidney

A

Bean shaped organs held in position by a mass of fat and surrounded by a fibrous connective tissue.
3 areas, outer fibrous capsule, renal cortex and inner renal medulla.
Renal cortex is granulated due to the presence of glomeruli.
Apexes of the renal pyramids project into the renal pelvis through renal papillae.

79
Q

two types of nephrons

A

cortical nephrons(reach short distance to the medulla)

juxta medullary nephrons (extend deep into the medulla)

Majority of the nephrones are cortical nephrones.

80
Q

The efferent arteriole form two capillary networks

A

peritubular capillaries which surrounds the proximal and distal convoluted tubules

vasa recta which extend towards the medulla surrounding the loop of Henle

81
Q

Podocytes

A

Inner layer of Bowman’s capsule consists of a single layer of flattened epithelial cells specialized for filtration known as podocytes.

Outer layer of the Bowman’s capsule composed of simple squamous epithelium

82
Q

How is high blood pressure is maintained in the glomerulus

A

The efferent arteriole has smaller diameter than the afferent arteriole.

83
Q

Capillary networks formed by the efferent arteriole and their location

A

Peritubular capillaries surrounding the proximal and distal convoluted tubules
Vasa recta surrounding the loop of henle.

84
Q

What part of the nephron is impermeable to water

A

Ascending limb of the loop of henle.

85
Q

Ultra filtration

A

Filtration of the blood under high pressure into the cavity of the Bowmans’ capsule is called ultra filtration
Filterate passes through the porus wall of blood capillary and the inner wall of the bowman’s capsule which contains podocytes specialized for filteration.
But due to their large size blood cells, plasma proteins and platelets do not pass through.
Glomerular filtrate contains salts, amino acis, glucose, vitamins and other small molecules.

86
Q

Glomerular filtrate (components)

A

Contains all components of blood except red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma proteins

87
Q

Selective reabsorption

A

Process through which useful molecules, ions and water from the glomerular filtrate are recovered and returned to the intestital fluid and then into capillary network of tubules is called selective reabsorption.
Most of the reabsorption occurs at the convoluted tubules.

88
Q

Secretion

A

Secretion is the process by which foreign materials and substances not required to the body including waste are cleared from the peritubular capillaries and interstitial fluid into the filtrate

89
Q

Major portion of water reabsorption occurs at which site

A

Proximal convoluted tubule

90
Q

Normal blood osmotic pressure

A

300 mOsm/L

91
Q

Hormone stimulating production of red blood cells

A

Erythropoietin

92
Q

Role of kidney in homeostasis

A

Maintains electrolyte and water balance in body fluids
Excretion of toxic waste products from the body
Regulating blood pH through acid-base balance
Controlling blood volume and pressure
Secretion of erythropoetein hormone stimulating RBC production
Production and secretion of renin

93
Q

Disorders related to human urinary system

A

Bladder and kidney stones
Kidney failure
Chronic kidney disease

94
Q

Desired properties of a efficient respiratory surface

A

• It must be permeable, and wet so that gases can pass through by dissolving.
• It must be thin because diffusion is only efficient over short distances.
• It should possess a large surface area to allow a sufficient volume of gases to be exchanged according to the organism’s need.
• It should possess a good blood supply (maintain a steep diffusion gradient)

95
Q

Respiration through body surface

A

Cnidarians, flatworms and earthworms

96
Q

Respiration through external gills

A

Marine annelids

97
Q

Respiration through internal gills

A

Fish, shrimp, prawns

98
Q

Respiration through tracheal system

A

Insects

99
Q

Respiration through lungs

A

Mammals, reptiles, birds

100
Q

Respiration through skin

A

Amphibians

101
Q

Respiration through book lungs

A

Spiders, scorpions

102
Q

Vocal cords

A

Found in the larynx
Made up of elastic fibres
Helps produce sound

103
Q

Nasal cavity, trachea and upper respiratory tract is lined by

A

Pseudo-stratified columnar

104
Q

Mucus escalator

A

Beating of cilia helps to move mucus upwards towards the pharynx where it is swallowed into the esophagus.

105
Q

Specialty of alveoli

A

Since there is no cilia in alveoli there are leukocytes to engulf foreign substances
Alveoli are also coated with a surfactant which prevents collapse under high tension

106
Q

Main and accessory respiratory muscles

A

Diaphragm and inter-costal muscles

Muscles of neck, back, chest and abdomen

107
Q

Breathing regulation

A

Main breathing regulation center is the medulla oblongata. Inspiratory center and the expiratory centers are included

In addition pneumotaxic center and the apneustic centers are found in the pons varoli.

108
Q

Humans employ what type of breathing

A

Negative pressure breathing where air is pulled into the lungs.
Inhalation is active while exhalation is passive

109
Q

Main respiratory muscles

A

Diaphragm and intercostal muscles

110
Q

Events taking place during inspiration

A

Spontaneous stimulation of the inspiratory centre of the medulla oblongata sends impulses to the diaphragm and the inter-costal muscles. This causes the above mentioned muscles to constrict and increase the thoracic volume. Since the parietal pleura is adhered to the diaphragm and the inter-costal muscles along with the thoracic volume, lung volume also increases.This creates a low pressure area inside the lungs compared to the atmospheric pressure, so along the pressure gradient air is drawn into the lungs.

111
Q

Events taking place during expiration

A

Spontaneous termination of the inspiratory centre of the medulla oblongata causes the respiratory muscles to relax.

112
Q

Normal pH value of blood and major blood vessels

A

7.4
Aorta and carotid arteries

113
Q

Effect of smoking

A

Nicotine addictive drug in cigarette smoke increases heart beat and blood pressure temporarily.
Cigarette smoke stimulates mucus secretion of goblet cells causing bronchitis.
HCN stops beating of cilia.
CO binds irreversibly with hemoglobin to produce carboxyheamoglobin

114
Q

Pulmonary hypertension

A

High blood pressure in lungs

115
Q

Tuberculosis

A

Caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Symptoms are loss of appetite and weight, excessive sweating, fever, racking of cough and spitting of blood.

116
Q

Asthma

A

Characterized by wheezing and chest tightness

117
Q

Respiratory cycle

A

Inhalation and exhalation during a single breath

118
Q

Tidal volume

A

Volume of air inhaled or exhaled with each breath
500 ml

119
Q

Inspiratory reserve volume

A

Extra volume of air that can be forcibly inhaled

120
Q

Residual volume

A

Volume of air remaining in lungs even after a forceful expiration
1200 ml

121
Q

Inspiratory capacity

A

Total volume of air that can be inspired after a tidal expiration
IC = TV + IRV

122
Q

Functional residual capacity

A

Volume of air remaining in the lungs at the end of a tidal expiration
FRC = ERV + RV

123
Q

Vital capacity

A

Maximum volume of air which can be inhaled and exhaled. Normally around 3100 ml in women and 4800 ml in men
VC = TV + IRV + ERV

124
Q

Total lung capacity

A

Maximum volume of air that lungs can hold
6000 ml
TLC = VC + RV

125
Q

Anatomical dead space

A

Some of the inspired air fills in to the system of trachea, bronchi and bronchioles and never contributes to the gas exchange
150 ml

126
Q

Used to measure lung volumes and capacities

A

Spirometry test

127
Q

What is meant by external and internal respiration

A

Transport of O2 from the lungs to the blood and movement of CO2 from the blood to lungs is referred to as external respiration.

Movement of O2 from blood to the tissue and CO2 from tissues to the blood is referred as internal respiration.

128
Q

Flame cells are used for excretion by

A

Platyhelminthes(flat worms)

129
Q

Nephridia are used for excretion by

A

Annelids, molluscs

130
Q

Malphigian tubules are used for excretion by

A

Insectes and other terrestrial arthropods

131
Q

Serum

A

When clotting factors are removed from the plasma it is called serum.

132
Q

Chronic bronchitis

A

Tar in cigarette smoke stimulate goblet cells to secrete mucus and inhibits the ciliary action of cilia. As a result mucus and other contaminants accumulate in bronchioles narrowing them or completely blocking them.

Thus results in smoker’s cough which is an attempt to move mucus up the airway. In addition sufferers prouduce large amounts of phlegm which is a mixture of mucus, bacteria and WBCs.

133
Q

Emphysema

A

Can occur as a complication of chronic bronchitis. Due to the constant inflammation of the lung tissue phagocytes line up in the lung tissue from blood capillaries. To reach the surface of the lungs phagocytes secrete elastace which digests the protein elastin. With much more less elastin alveoli does not stretch and recoil normally and as a result bronchioles and alveoli collapse.

Sufferers right part of the heart enlarges over time.

134
Q

Other nitrogenous wastes products produced by humans

A

Creatinine and Uric acid

Creatinine is produced in the liver from certain amino acids where it is used in the muscles in the form of creatinine phosphate which acts as an energy store

Uric acid is produced during the digestion of purines of nucleotides.

135
Q

An adult human produces how much urea

A

25-30g of urea per day

Biology (21 decks)

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