Chapter Three: Tools for Exploring the World Flashcards
alert inactivity
state in which a baby is calm with eyes open and attentive; the baby seems to be deliberately inspecting the environment
waking activity
state in which a baby’s eyes are open but seem unfocused while the arms and legs move in bursts of uncoordinated motions
irregular or rapid-eye movement (REM) sleep
irregular sleep in which an infant’s eyes dart rapidly beneath the eyelids while the body is quite active
regular (non-REM) sleep
sleep in which heart rate, breathing, and brain activity are steady
temperament
consistent style or pattern of behavior
Some reflexes help infants get necessary nutrients, other reflexes protect infants from danger, and still other reflexes _______.
serve as the basis for later motor behaviors
The _____ is based on five vital functions and provides a quick indication of a newborn’s physical health.
Apgar Score
A baby lying calmly with its eyes open and focused is in a state of ________.
alert inactivity
Newborns spend more time asleep than awake, and about half this time asleep is spent in ________, a time thought to foster growth in the central nervous system.
REM sleep
The campaign to reduce SIDS emphasizes that infants should ________.
sleep on their back
Research on the stability of temperament in infants and young children typically finds that ____________.
temperament is moderately stable in these years
neuron
basic cellular unit of the brain and nervous system that specializes in receiving and transmitting information
cell body
center of the neuron that keeps the neuron alive
dendrite
end of the neuron that receives information; it looks like a tree with many branches
axon
tubelike structure that emerges from the cell body and transmits information to other neurons
terminal buttons
small knobs at the end of the axon that release neurotransmitters
neurotransmitters
chemicals released by the terminal buttons that allow neurons to communicate with each other
corpus callosum
thick bundle of neurons that connects the two hemispheres
frontal cortex
brain region that regulates personality and goal-directed behavior
neural plate
flat group of cells present in prenatal development that becomes the brain and spinal cord
myelin
fatty sheath that wraps around neurons and enables them to transmit information more rapidly
synaptic pruning
gradual reduction in the number of synapses, beginning in infancy and continuing until early adolescence
electroencephalography
the study of brain waves recorded from electrodes that are place on the scalp
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
method of studying brain activity by using magnetic fields to track blood flow in the brain
experience-expectant growth
process by which the wiring of the brain is organized by experiences that are common to most humans
experience-dependent growth
process by which an individual’s unique experiences over a lifetime affect brain structures and organization
Compared to older children and adults, an infant’s head and trunk are _______.
disproportionately large
Because of the high demands of growth, infants need __________ calories per pound than adults.
more
The most effective treatment for malnutrition is improved diet and ______.
parent training
The ______ is the part of the neuron that contains the basic machinery to keep the cell alive.
cell body
Human speech typically elicits the greatest electrical activity from the ________ of an infant’s brain.
left hemisphere
The frontal cortex is the seat of personality and regulates ________.
planning
A good example of brain plasticity is that, although children with brain damage often have impaired cognitive processes, _____________.
they often regain their earlier skills over time
dynamic systems theory
theory that views motor development as involving many distinct skills that are organized and reorganized over time to meet specific needs
differentiation
distinguishing and mastering individual motions
integration
linking individual motions into a coherent, coordinated whole
According to __________, motor development involves many distinct skills that are organized and reorganized over time, depending on task demands.
Dynamic Systems Theory
When 4 month olds tumble from a sitting position, they usually try to keep their head upright. This happens even when they are blindfolded, which means that the important cues to balance come from ________.
their inner ear
Skills important in learning to walk include maintaining upright posture and balance, stepping, and ________.
using perceptual information
Akira uses both hands simultaneously, but not in a coordinated manner; each hand seems to be “doing it’s own thing.” Akira is probably ______ months old
four
Before the age of ___, children show no signs of handedness; they use their left and right hands interchangeably
one
perception
processes by which the brain receives, selects, modifies, and organizes incoming nerve impulses that are the result of physical stimulation
visual acuity
smallest patter that one can distinguish reliably
cones
specialized neurons in the back of the eye that sense color
kinetic cues
cues to depth perception in which motion is used to estimate depth
visual expansion
kinetic cue to depth perception that is based on the fact that an object fills an ever-greater proportion of the retina as it moves closer
motion parallax
kinetic cue to depth perception based on the fact that nearby moving objects move across our visual field faster than do distant objects
retinal disparity
way of inferring depth based on differences in the retinal images in the left and right eyes
pictorial cues
cues to depth perception that are used to convey depth in drawings and painting
linear perspective
a cue to depth perception based on the fact that parallel lines come together at a single point in the distance
texture gradient
perceptual cue to depth based on the fact that the texture of objects changes from coarse and distinct for nearby objects to finer and less distinct for distant objects
intersensory redundancy
infants’ sensory systems are attuned to information presented simultaneously to different sensory modes
Infants respond negatively to substances that taste sour or _____
bitter
Infants respond to ______ with a high-pitched cry that is hard to soothe.
pain
Infants’ hearing is best for sounds that have the pitch of ______.
human speech
At age _____, infants’ acuity is like that of an adult with normal vision.
one year
______ are specialized neurons in the retina that are sensitive to color.
cones
The term ______ refers to the fact that images of an object in the left and right eyes differ for nearby objects.
retinal disparity
When elements consistently move together, infants decide that they are ______.
parts of the same object
Infants readily integrate information from different senses, and their sensory systems seem to be particularly attuned to ______.
information presented redundantly to multiple senses
theory of mind
ideas about connections between thoughts, beliefs, intentions, and behavior that create an intuitive understanding of the link between mind and behavior
Apparently children are first self-aware at age 2 because this is when they first recognize themselves in a mirror and in photographs and when they first use the _______.
personal pronouns such as “I” and “me”
During the preschool years, children’s self-concepts emphasize ______, physical characteristics, preferences, and competencies.
possessions
Unlike 4-year-olds, most 3-year-olds don’t understand that other people’s behavior is sometimes based on ________.
false beliefs
