Chapter Three Flashcards
consciousness
our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).
Those working in the interdisciplinary field called ___________ ___________ study the brain activity associated with the mental processes of perception, thinking, memory, and language.
cognitive neuroscience
selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.
inattentional blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.
change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness.
Explain three attentional principles that magicians may use to fool us.
Our selective attention allows us to focus on only a limited portion of our surroundings. Inattentional blindness explains why we don’t perceive some things when we are distracted. And change blindness happens when we fail to notice a relatively unimportant change in our environment. All three principles help magicians fool us, as they direct our attention elsewhere to perform their tricks.
dual processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.
blindsight
a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it.
parallel processing
processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; generally used to process well-learned information or to solve easy problems.
sequential processing
processing one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems.
What are the mind’s two tracks, and what is dual processing?
Our mind simultaneously processes information on a conscious track and an unconscious track (dual processing) as we organize and interpret information.
sleep
a periodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation. (Adapted from Dement, 1999.)
circadian [ser-KAY-dee-an] rhythm
our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.
REM sleep
rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.
alpha waves
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.
hallucinations
false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.
delta waves
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.
Why would communal sleeping provide added protection for those whose safety depends upon vigilance, such as these soldiers (above)?
With each soldier cycling through the sleep stages independently, it is very likely that at any given time at least one will be in an easily awakened stage in the event of a threat.
What are the four sleep stages, and in what order do we normally travel through those stages?
REM, NREM-1, NREM-2, NREM-3; normally we move through NREM-1, then NREM-2, then NREM-3, then back up through NREM-2 before we experience REM sleep.
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN
a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness.
The ___________ nucleus helps monitor the brain’s release of melatonin, which affects our ___________ rhythm.
suprachiasmatic, circadian
What are five proposed reasons for our need for sleep?
(1) Sleep has survival value. (2) Sleep helps us restore the immune system and repair brain tissue. (3) During sleep we consolidate memories. (4) Sleep fuels creativity. (5) Sleep plays a role in the growth process.
insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.
narcolepsy
a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.
night terrors
a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.
A well-rested person would be more likely to have ____________ (trouble concentrating/quick reaction times) and a sleep-deprived person would be more likely to ____________ (gain weight/fight off a cold).
quick reaction times; gain weight
dream
a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind.
manifest content
according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content).
latent content
according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content).
REM rebound
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.
(1) Freud’s wish-fulfillment (dreams as a psychic safety valve), (2) information-processing (dreams sort the day’s events and consolidate memories), (3) physiological function (dreams pave neural pathways), (4) activation-synthesis (REM sleep triggers random neural activity that the mind weaves into stories), and (5) cognitive development (dreams reflect the dreamer’s developmental stage)
psychoactive drug
a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods.
substance use disorder
a disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk.
What is the process that leads to drug tolerance?
With repeated exposure to a psychoactive drug, the user’s brain chemistry adapts and the drug’s effect lessens. Thus, it takes bigger doses to get the desired effect.
depressants
drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.
alcohol use disorder
popularly known as alcoholism) alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use.
barbiturates
drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.
opiates
opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.
Can someone become “addicted” to shopping?
Unless it becomes compulsive or dysfunctional, simply having a strong interest in shopping is not the same as having a physical addiction to a drug. It typically does not involve obsessive craving in spite of known negative consequences.
Alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates are all in a class of drugs called ___________.
depressants
stimulants
drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
nicotine
a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco.
What withdrawal symptoms should your friend expect when she finally decides to quit smoking?
Nicotine-withdrawal symptoms include strong cravings, insomnia, anxiety, irritability, distractibility, and difficulty concentrating. However, if your friend sticks with it, the craving and withdrawal symptoms will gradually dissipate over about six months.
cocaine
a powerful and addictive stimulant derived from the coca plant; produces temporarily increased alertness and euphoria.
amphetamines
drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes.
methamphetamine
a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.
Ecstasy (MDMA)
a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.
hallucinogens
psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.
near-death experience
an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations.
LSD
a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide).
THC
the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations.
How strange would appear to be this thing that men call pleasure! And how curiously it is related to what is thought to be its opposite, pain! . . . Wherever the one is found, the other follows up behind.”
Plato, Phaedo, fourth century B.C.E.
How does this pleasure-pain description apply to the repeated use of psychoactive drugs?
Psychoactive drugs create pleasure by altering brain chemistry. With repeated use of the drug, the user develops tolerance and needs more of the drug to achieve the desired effect. (Marijuana is an exception.) Discontinuing use of the substance then produces painful or psychologically unpleasant withdrawal symptoms.
Studies have found that people who begin drinking in their early teens are much more likely to develop alcohol use disorder than those who begin at age 21 or after. What possible explanations might there be for this correlation?
Possible explanations include (a) biological factors (a person could have a biological predisposition to both early use and later abuse, or alcohol use could modify a person’s neural pathways); (b) psychological factors (early use could establish taste preferences for alcohol); and (c) social-cultural factors (early use could influence enduring habits, attitudes, activities, or peer relationships that could foster alcohol use disorder).
