Chapter Three

Question 1

consciousness

Answer 1

our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Question 2

cognitive neuroscience

Answer 2

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

Question 3

Those working in the interdisciplinary field called ___________ ___________ study the brain activity associated with the mental processes of perception, thinking, memory, and language.

Answer 3

cognitive neuroscience

Question 4

selective attention

Answer 4

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

Question 5

inattentional blindness

Answer 5

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

Question 6

change blindness

Answer 6

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness.

Question 7

Explain three attentional principles that magicians may use to fool us.

Answer 7

Our selective attention allows us to focus on only a limited portion of our surroundings. Inattentional blindness explains why we don’t perceive some things when we are distracted. And change blindness happens when we fail to notice a relatively unimportant change in our environment. All three principles help magicians fool us, as they direct our attention elsewhere to perform their tricks.

Question 8

dual processing

Answer 8

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Question 9

blindsight

Answer 9

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it.

Question 10

parallel processing

Answer 10

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; generally used to process well-learned information or to solve easy problems.

Question 11

sequential processing

Answer 11

processing one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems.

Question 12

What are the mind’s two tracks, and what is dual processing?

Answer 12

Our mind simultaneously processes information on a conscious track and an unconscious track (dual processing) as we organize and interpret information.

Question 13

sleep

Answer 13

a periodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation. (Adapted from Dement, 1999.)

Question 14

circadian [ser-KAY-dee-an] rhythm

Answer 14

our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

Question 15

REM sleep

Answer 15

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

Question 16

alpha waves

Answer 16

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

Question 17

hallucinations

Answer 17

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.

Question 18

delta waves

Answer 18

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

Question 19

Why would communal sleeping provide added protection for those whose safety depends upon vigilance, such as these soldiers (above)?

Answer 19

With each soldier cycling through the sleep stages independently, it is very likely that at any given time at least one will be in an easily awakened stage in the event of a threat.

Question 20

What are the four sleep stages, and in what order do we normally travel through those stages?

Answer 20

REM, NREM-1, NREM-2, NREM-3; normally we move through NREM-1, then NREM-2, then NREM-3, then back up through NREM-2 before we experience REM sleep.

Question 21

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN

Answer 21

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness.

Question 22

The ___________ nucleus helps monitor the brain’s release of melatonin, which affects our ___________ rhythm.

Answer 22

suprachiasmatic, circadian

Question 23

What are five proposed reasons for our need for sleep?

Answer 23

(1) Sleep has survival value. (2) Sleep helps us restore the immune system and repair brain tissue. (3) During sleep we consolidate memories. (4) Sleep fuels creativity. (5) Sleep plays a role in the growth process.

Question 24

insomnia

Answer 24

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

Question 25

narcolepsy

Answer 25

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

Question 26

sleep apnea

Answer 26

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.

Question 27

night terrors

Answer 27

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.

Question 28

A well-rested person would be more likely to have ____________ (trouble concentrating/quick reaction times) and a sleep-deprived person would be more likely to ____________ (gain weight/fight off a cold).

Answer 28

quick reaction times; gain weight

Question 29

dream

Answer 29

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind.

Question 30

manifest content

Answer 30

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content).

Question 31

latent content

Answer 31

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content).

Question 32

REM rebound

Answer 32

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.

Question 33

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.

Answer 33

(1) Freud’s wish-fulfillment (dreams as a psychic safety valve), (2) information-processing (dreams sort the day’s events and consolidate memories), (3) physiological function (dreams pave neural pathways), (4) activation-synthesis (REM sleep triggers random neural activity that the mind weaves into stories), and (5) cognitive development (dreams reflect the dreamer’s developmental stage)

Question 34

psychoactive drug

Answer 34

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods.

Question 35

substance use disorder

Answer 35

a disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk.

Question 36

What is the process that leads to drug tolerance?

Answer 36

With repeated exposure to a psychoactive drug, the user’s brain chemistry adapts and the drug’s effect lessens. Thus, it takes bigger doses to get the desired effect.

Question 37

depressants

Answer 37

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

Question 38

alcohol use disorder

Answer 38

popularly known as alcoholism) alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use.

Question 39

barbiturates

Answer 39

drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.

Question 40

opiates

Answer 40

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.

Question 41

Can someone become “addicted” to shopping?

Answer 41

Unless it becomes compulsive or dysfunctional, simply having a strong interest in shopping is not the same as having a physical addiction to a drug. It typically does not involve obsessive craving in spite of known negative consequences.

Question 42

Alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates are all in a class of drugs called ___________.

Answer 42

depressants

Question 43

stimulants

Answer 43

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Question 44

nicotine

Answer 44

a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco.

Question 45

What withdrawal symptoms should your friend expect when she finally decides to quit smoking?

Answer 45

Nicotine-withdrawal symptoms include strong cravings, insomnia, anxiety, irritability, distractibility, and difficulty concentrating. However, if your friend sticks with it, the craving and withdrawal symptoms will gradually dissipate over about six months.

Question 46

cocaine

Answer 46

a powerful and addictive stimulant derived from the coca plant; produces temporarily increased alertness and euphoria.

Question 47

amphetamines

Answer 47

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes.

Question 48

methamphetamine

Answer 48

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.

Question 49

Ecstasy (MDMA)

Answer 49

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.

Question 50

hallucinogens

Answer 50

psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

Question 51

near-death experience

Answer 51

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations.

Question 52

LSD

Answer 52

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide).

Question 53

THC

Answer 53

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations.

Question 54

How strange would appear to be this thing that men call pleasure! And how curiously it is related to what is thought to be its opposite, pain! . . . Wherever the one is found, the other follows up behind.”
Plato, Phaedo, fourth century B.C.E.
How does this pleasure-pain description apply to the repeated use of psychoactive drugs?

Answer 54

Psychoactive drugs create pleasure by altering brain chemistry. With repeated use of the drug, the user develops tolerance and needs more of the drug to achieve the desired effect. (Marijuana is an exception.) Discontinuing use of the substance then produces painful or psychologically unpleasant withdrawal symptoms.

Question 56

Studies have found that people who begin drinking in their early teens are much more likely to develop alcohol use disorder than those who begin at age 21 or after. What possible explanations might there be for this correlation?

Answer 56

Possible explanations include (a) biological factors (a person could have a biological predisposition to both early use and later abuse, or alcohol use could modify a person’s neural pathways); (b) psychological factors (early use could establish taste preferences for alcohol); and (c) social-cultural factors (early use could influence enduring habits, attitudes, activities, or peer relationships that could foster alcohol use disorder).