Chapter Eight

Question 1

memory

Answer 1

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Question 2

recall

Answer 2

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

Question 3

recognition

Answer 3

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

Question 4

relearning

Answer 4

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

Question 5

Multiple-choice questions test our _______. Fill-in-the-blank questions test our ______.

Answer 5

recognition; recall.

Question 6

If you want to be sure to remember what you’re learning for an upcoming test, would it be better to use recall or recognition to check your memory? Why?

Answer 6

It would be better to test your memory with recall (such as with short-answer or fill-in-the-blank self-test questions) rather than recognition (such as with multiple-choice questions). Recalling information is harder than recognizing it. So if you can recall it, that means your retention of the material is better than if you could only recognize it. Your chances of test success are therefore greater.

Question 7

encoding

Answer 7

the process of getting information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

Question 8

storage

Answer 8

the process of retaining encoded information over time.

Question 9

retrieval

Answer 9

the process of getting information out of memory storage.

Question 10

parallel processing

Answer 10

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions.

Question 11

sensory memory

Answer 11

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Question 12

short-term memory

Answer 12

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten.

Question 13

long-term memory

Answer 13

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Question 14

working memory

Answer 14

a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Question 15

How does the working memory concept update the classic Atkinson-Shiffrin three-stage information-processing model?

Answer 15

The newer idea of a working memory emphasizes the active processing that we now know takes place in Atkinson-Shiffrin’s short-term memory stage. While the Atkinson-Shiffrin model viewed short-term memory as a temporary holding space, working memory plays a key role in processing new information and connecting it to previously stored information.

Question 16

What are two basic functions of working memory?

Answer 16

(1) Active processing of incoming visual and auditory information, and (2) focusing our spotlight of attention.

Question 17

explicit memory

Answer 17

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory.)

Question 18

effortful processing

Answer 18

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Question 19

automatic processing

Answer 19

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.

Question 20

implicit memory

Answer 20

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)

Question 21

iconic memory

Answer 21

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

Question 22

echoic memory

Answer 22

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

Question 23

What is the difference between automatic and effortful processing, and what are some examples of each?

Answer 23

Automatic processing occurs unconsciously (automatically) for such things as the sequence and frequency of a day’s events, and reading and comprehending words in our own language(s). Effortful processing requires attention and awareness and happens, for example, when we work hard to learn new material in class, or new lines for a play.

Question 24

At which of Atkinson-Shiffrin’s three memory stages would iconic and echoic memory occur?

Answer 24

sensory memory

Question 25

chunking

Answer 25

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

Question 26

mnemonics

Answer 26

[nih-MON-iks] memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Question 27

spacing effect

Answer 27

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

Question 28

testing effect

Answer 28

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

Question 29

shallow processing

Answer 29

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.

Question 30

deep processing

Answer 30

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.

Question 31

Which strategies are better for long-term retention: cramming and rereading material, or spreading out learning over time and repeatedly testing yourself?

Answer 31

Although cramming and rereading may lead to short-term gains in knowledge, distributed practice and repeated self-testing will result in the greatest long-term retention.

Question 32

If you try to make the material you are learning personally meaningful, are you processing at a shallow or a deep level? Which level leads to greater retention?

Answer 32

Making material personally meaningful involves processing at a deep level, because you are processing semantically—based on the meaning of the words. Deep processing leads to greater retention.

Question 33

semantic memory

Answer 33

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory).

Question 34

episodic memory

Answer 34

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is semantic memory).

Question 35

memory consolidation

Answer 35

the neural storage of a long-term memory.

Question 37

Your friend has experienced brain damage in an accident. He can remember how to tie his shoes but has a hard time remembering anything you tell him during a conversation. How can implicit versus explicit information processing explain what’s going on here?

Answer 37

Our explicit conscious memories of facts and episodes differ from our implicit memories of skills (such as tying shoelaces) and classically conditioned responses. The parts of the brain involved in explicit memory processing (the frontal lobes and hippocampus) may have sustained damage in the accident, while the parts involved in implicit memory processing (the cerebellum and basal ganglia) appear to have escaped harm.

Question 38

Review key memory structures in the brain

Answer 38

Frontal lobes and hippocampus: explicit memory formation
Cerebellum and basal ganglia: implicit memory formation
Amygdala: emotion-related memory formation

Question 39

flashbulb memory

Answer 39

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

Question 40

long-term potentiation (LTP)

Answer 40

an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory.

Question 41

Which brain area responds to stress hormones by helping to create stronger memories?

Answer 41

the amygdala

Question 42

Increased efficiency at the synapses is evidence of the neural basis of learning and memory. This is called ___________-__________ ____________ .

Answer 42

long-term potentiation.

Question 43

priming

Answer 43

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.

Question 44

encoding specificity principle

Answer 44

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it.

Question 45

What is priming?

Answer 45

Priming is the activation (often without our awareness) of associations. Seeing a gun, for example, might temporarily predispose someone to interpret an ambiguous face as threatening or to recall a boss as nasty.

Question 46

When we are tested immediately after viewing a list of words, we tend to recall the first and last items best, which is known as the ______________ effect.

Answer 46

serial position

Question 47

anterograde amnesia

Answer 47

an inability to form new memories.

Question 48

retrograde amnesia

Answer 48

an inability to retrieve information from one’s past.

Question 49

proactive interference

Answer 49

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information.

Question 50

retroactive interference

Answer 50

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information.

Question 51

repression

Answer 51

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

Question 52

What are three ways we forget, and how does each of these happen?

Answer 52

(1) Encoding failure: Unattended information never entered our memory system. (2) Storage decay: Information fades from our memory. (3) Retrieval failure: We cannot access stored information accurately, sometimes due to interference or motivated forgetting.

Question 53

You will experience less _______ (proactive/retroactive) interference if you learn new material in the hour before sleep than you will if you learn it before turning to another subject.

Answer 53

retroactive.

Question 54

Freud believed that we ___________ unacceptable memories to minimize anxiety.

Answer 54

repress.

Question 55

reconsolidation

Answer 55

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again.

Question 56

misinformation effect

Answer 56

occurs when misleading information has corrupted one’s memory of an event.

Question 57

source amnesia

Answer 57

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories. (p. 322)

Question 58

déjà vu

Answer 58

that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. (p. 322)

Question 59

What—given the commonness of source amnesia—might life be like if we remembered all our waking experiences and all our dreams?

Answer 59

Real experiences would be confused with those we dreamed. When seeing someone we know, we might therefore be unsure whether we were reacting to something they previously did or to something we dreamed they did.

Question 60

Imagine being a jury member in a trial for a parent accused of sexual abuse based on a recovered memory. What insights from memory research should you offer the jury?

Answer 60

It will be important to remember the key points agreed upon by most researchers and professional associations: Sexual abuse, injustice, forgetting, and memory construction all happen; recovered memories are common; memories from our first four years are unreliable; memories claimed to be recovered through hypnosis are especially unreliable; and memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting.

Question 61

Which memory strategies can help you study smarter and retain more information?

Answer 61

Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material to boost long-term recall. Schedule spaced (not crammed) study times. Make the material personally meaningful, with well-organized and vivid associations. Refresh your memory by returning to contexts and moods that activate retrieval cues. Use mnemonic devices. Minimize interference. Plan for a complete night’s sleep. Test yourself repeatedly—retrieval practice is a proven retention strategy.