Chapter Ten

Question 1

intelligence

Answer 1

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

Question 2

general intelligence (g)

Answer 2

according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.

Question 3

savant syndrome

Answer 3

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing.

Question 4

How does the existence of savant syndrome support Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences?

Answer 4

People with savant syndrome have limited mental ability overall but possess one or more exceptional skills. According to Howard Gardner, this suggests that our abilities come in separate packages rather than being fully expressed by one general intelligence that encompasses all our talents.

Question 5

emotional intelligence

Answer 5

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.

Question 6

intelligence test

Answer 6

a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.

Question 7

achievement test

Answer 7

a test designed to assess what a person has learned.

Question 8

aptitude test

Answer 8

a test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.

Question 9

mental age

Answer 9

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age. Thus, a child who does as well as an average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8.

Question 10

What did Binet hope to achieve by establishing a child’s mental age?

Answer 10

Binet hoped that determining the child’s mental age (the age that typically corresponds to a certain level of performance) would help identify appropriate school placements.

Question 11

Stanford-Binet

Answer 11

the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet’s original intelligence test.

Question 12

intelligence quotient (IQ)

Answer 12

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma/ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.

Question 13

What is the IQ of a 4-year-old with a mental age of 5?

Answer 13

125 (5 ÷ 4 × 100 = 125)

Question 14

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Answer 14

the WAIS and its companion versions for children are the most widely used intelligence tests; they contain verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests.

Question 15

An employer with a pool of applicants for a single available position is interested in testing each applicant’s potential. To determine that, she should use an ________________ (achievement/aptitude) test. That same employer wishing to test the effectiveness of a new, on-the-job training program would be wise to use an ______________ (achievement/aptitude) test.

Answer 15

aptitude; achievement

Question 16

standardization

Answer 16

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.

Question 17

normal curve

Answer 17

the bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

Question 18

reliability

Answer 18

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting.

Question 19

validity

Answer 19

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also content validity and predictive validity.)

Question 20

content validity

Answer 20

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest.

Question 21

predictive validity

Answer 21

the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. (Also called criterion-related validity.)

Question 22

What are the three criteria that a psychological test must meet in order to be widely accepted? Explain.

Answer 22

A psychological test must be standardized (pretested on a representative sample of people), reliable (yielding consistent results), and valid (measuring and predicting what it is supposed to).

Question 23

Correlation coefficients were used in this section. Here’s a quick review: Correlations do not indicate cause-effect, but they do tell us whether two things are associated in some way. A correlation of −1.00 represents perfect ____________ (agreement/disagreement) between two sets of scores: As one score goes up, the other score goes _____________ (up/down). A correlation of ______________ represents no association. The highest correlation, +1.00, represents perfect (agreement/disagreement): As the first score goes up, the other score goes _____________ (up/down).

Answer 23

disagreement; down; zero; agreement; up

Question 24

cross-sectional study

Answer 24

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.

Question 25

longitudinal study

Answer 25

research that follows and retests the same people over time.

Question 26

Researcher A is well-funded to learn about how intelligence changes over the life span. Researcher B wants to study the intelligence of people who are now at various life stages. Which researcher should use the cross-sectional method, and which the longitudinal method?

Answer 26

Researcher A should develop a longitudinal study to examine how intelligence changes in the same people over the life span. Researcher B should develop a cross-sectional study to examine the intelligence of people now at various life stages.

Question 27

crystallized intelligence

Answer 27

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.

Question 28

fluid intelligence

Answer 28

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood.

Question 29

AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)

Answer 29

a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections.

Question 30

Why do psychologists NOT diagnose an intellectual disability based solely on a person’s intelligence test score?

Answer 30

An intelligence test score is only one measure of a person’s ability to function. Other important factors to consider in an overall assessment include conceptual skills, social skills, and practical skills.

Question 31

heritability

Answer 31

the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

Question 32

A check on your understanding of heritability: If environments become more equal, the heritability of intelligence will
increase.
decrease.
be unchanged.

Answer 32

a. (Heritability—variation explained by genetic influences—will increase as environmental variation decreases.)

Question 33

The heritability of intelligence scores will be greater in a society marked by equal opportunity than in a society of peasants and aristocrats. Why?

Answer 33

Perfectly equal opportunity would create 100 percent heritability, because genes alone would account for any human differences.

Question 34

What is the difference between a test that is biased culturally and a test that is biased in terms of its validity?

Answer 34

A test may be culturally biased if higher scores are achieved by those with certain cultural experiences. That same test may not be biased in terms of validity if it predicts what it is supposed to predict. For example, the SAT may be culturally biased in favor of those with experience in the U.S. school system, but it does still accurately predict U.S. college success.

Question 35

stereotype threat

Answer 35

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.

Question 36

What psychological principle helps explain why women tend to perform more poorly when they believe their online chess opponent is male?

Answer 36

stereotype threat

Question 37

How do psychologists define intelligence, and what are the arguments for g?

Answer 37

Intelligence is the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. Charles Spearman proposed that we have one general intelligence (g) underlying all mental abilities. Through his work with factor analysis, a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related abilities, he noted that those who score high in one area typically score higher than average in other areas. L. L. Thurstone disagreed and identified seven different clusters of mental abilities. Yet a tendency remained for high scorers in one cluster to score high in other clusters, providing further evidence of a g factor.

Question 38

How do Gardner’s and Sternberg’s theories of multiple intelligences differ, and what criticisms have they faced?

Answer 38

Howard Gardner proposed eight independent intelligences (linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and naturalist), as well as a possible ninth (existential intelligence). The different intelligences of people with savant syndrome, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and certain kinds of brain damage seem to support his view. Robert Sternberg’s triarchic theory proposes three intelligence areas that predict real-world skills: analytical (academic problem solving), creative (trailblazing smarts), and practical (street smarts). Critics note research that has confirmed a general intelligence factor, which widely predicts performance. But highly successful people also tend to be conscientious, well-connected, and doggedly energetic, with both ability and motivation counting.

Question 39

What are the four components of emotional intelligence?

Answer 39

Emotional intelligence, which is an aspect of social intelligence, includes the abilities to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions. Emotionally intelligent people tend to be happy, healthy, and more successful personally and professionally. Some critics question whether calling these abilities “intelligence” stretches that concept too far.

Question 40

What is an intelligence test, and how do achievement and aptitude tests differ?

Answer 40

An intelligence test assesses an individual’s mental aptitudes and compares them with those of others, using numerical scores. Aptitude tests measure the ability to learn, while achievement tests measure what we have already learned.

Question 41

When and why were intelligence tests created, and how do today’s tests differ from early intelligence tests?

Answer 41

Francis Galton, who was fascinated with measuring what he believed to be hereditary genius (to encourage those with exceptional abilities to reproduce), attempted but failed to construct a simple intelligence test in the late 1800s. Alfred Binet, who tended toward an environmental explanation of intelligence differences, started the modern intelligence-testing movement in France in the early 1900s, when he developed questions to help predict children’s future progress in the Paris school system. Binet hoped his test would improve children’s education but feared it might be used to label them. During the early twentieth century, Lewis Terman of Stanford University revised Binet’s work for use in the United States. Terman thought his Stanford-Binet could help guide people toward appropriate opportunities, but his belief in an intelligence that was fixed at birth and differed among ethnic groups realized Binet’s fear that intelligence tests would be used to limit children’s opportunities. William Stern contributed the concept of the IQ (intelligence quotient). The most widely used intelligence tests today are the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and Wechsler’s tests for children. These tests differ from their predecessors in the way they offer an overall intelligence score as well as scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed.

Question 42

What is a normal curve, and what does it mean to say that a test has been standardized and is reliable and valid?

Answer 42

The distribution of test scores often forms a normal (bell-shaped) curve around the central average score, with fewer and fewer scores at the extremes. Standardization establishes a basis for meaningful score comparisons by giving a test to a representative sample of future test-takers. Reliability is the extent to which a test yields consistent results (on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or upon retesting). Validity is the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. A test has content validity if it samples the pertinent behavior (as a driving test measures driving ability). It has predictive validity if it predicts a behavior it was designed to predict. (Aptitude tests have predictive validity if they can predict future achievements; their predictive power is best for the early school years.)

Question 43

What are cross-sectional studies and longitudinal studies, and why is it important to know which method was used?

Answer 43

The differing intelligence findings of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies—that mental ability declines with age or that it remains stable (or even increases)—illustrate the fact that cross-sectional studies compare people of different eras and life circumstances. This can provide an excellent snapshot of a particular point in time, but longitudinal studies are superior for tracing the evolution of traits over a longer period.

Question 44

How does aging affect crystallized and fluid intelligence?

Answer 44

Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies have shown that fluid intelligence declines in older adults, in part because neural processing slows. However, crystallized intelligence tends to increase.

Question 45

How stable are intelligence test scores over the life span?

Answer 45

The stability of intelligence test scores increases with age. At age 4, scores fluctuate somewhat but begin to predict adolescent and adult scores. By early adolescence, scores are very stable and predictive.

Question 46

What are the traits of those at the low and high intelligence extremes?

Answer 46

An intelligence test score of or below 70 is one diagnostic criterion for the diagnosis of intellectual disability; other criteria are limited conceptual, social, and practical skills. People at the high intelligence extreme tend to be healthy and well-adjusted, as well as unusually successful academically.

Question 47

What evidence points to a genetic influence on intelligence, and what is heritability?

Answer 47

Studies of twins, family members, and adoptive parents and siblings indicate a significant hereditary contribution to intelligence scores. Intelligence is polygenetic. Heritability is the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that can be attributed to genes.

Question 48

What does evidence reveal about environmental influences on intelligence?

Answer 48

Studies of children raised in impoverished environments with minimal social interaction indicate that life experiences significantly influence intelligence test performance. No evidence supports the idea that normal, healthy children can be molded into geniuses by growing up in an exceptionally enriched environment.

Question 49

How and why do the genders differ in mental ability scores?

Answer 49

Males and females have the same average intelligence test scores, but they tend to differ in some specific abilities. Girls are better spellers, more verbally fluent, better at locating objects, better at detecting emotions, and more sensitive to touch, taste, and color. Boys outperform girls at spatial ability and related mathematics, though boys and girls hardly differ in math computation and overall math performance. Boys also outnumber girls at the low and high extremes of mental abilities. Evolutionary and cultural explanations have been proposed for these gender differences.

Question 50

How and why do racial and ethnic groups differ in mental ability scores?

Answer 50

Racial and ethnic groups differ in their average intelligence test scores. The evidence suggests that environmental differences are responsible for these group differences.

Question 51

Are intelligence tests inappropriately biased? How does stereotype threat affect test-takers’ performance?

Answer 51

Aptitude tests aim to predict how well a test-taker will perform in a given situation. So they are necessarily “biased” in the sense that they are sensitive to performance differences caused by cultural experience. By “inappropriately biased,” psychologists mean that a test predicts less accurately for one group than for another. In this sense, most experts consider the major aptitude tests unbiased. Stereotype threat, a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype, affects performance on all kinds of tests.

Question 52

Charles Spearman suggested we have one ________________ _________________ underlying success across a variety of intellectual abilities.

Answer 52

1. general intelligence (g)

Question 53

The existence of savant syndrome seems to support
a - Sternberg’s distinction among three types of intelligence.
B - criticism of multiple intelligence theories.
C - Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences.
D - Thorndike’s view of social intelligence.

Answer 53

2. c

Question 54

Sternberg’s three types of intelligence are _______________, _____________, and _____________.

Answer 54

academic; practical; creative

Question 55

Emotionally intelligent people tend to:
A: seek immediate gratification.
B: understand their own emotions but not those of others.
C: understand others’ emotions but not their own.
D: succeed in their careers.

Answer 55

4. d