Chapter Four

Question 1

behavior genetics

Answer 1

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

Question 2

heredity

Answer 2

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.

Question 3

environment

Answer 3

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.

Question 4

chromosomes

Answer 4

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.

Question 5

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

Answer 5

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Question 6

genes

Answer 6

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins.

Question 7

genome

Answer 7

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes.

Question 8

Put the following cell structures in order from smallest to largest: nucleus, gene, chromosome.

Answer 8

gene, chromosome, nucleus

Question 9

identical (monozygotic) twins

Answer 9

develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.

Question 10

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

Answer 10

develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment.

Question 11

How do researchers use twin and adoption studies to learn about psychological principles?

Answer 11

Researchers use twin and adoption studies to understand how much variation among individuals is due to genetic makeup and how much is due to environmental factors. Some studies compare the traits and behaviors of identical twins (same genes) and fraternal twins (different genes, as in any two siblings). They also compare adopted children with their adoptive and biological parents. Some studies compare traits and behaviors of twins raised together or separately.

Question 12

temperament

Answer 12

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

Question 13

heritability

Answer 13

the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

Question 14

Those studying the heritability of a trait try to determine how much of the person-to-person variation in that trait among members of a specific group is due to their differing ___________.

Answer 14

genes

Question 15

interaction

Answer 15

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).

Question 16

molecular genetics

Answer 16

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes.

Question 17

molecular behavior genetics

Answer 17

the study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior.

Question 18

epigenetics

Answer 18

“above” or “in addition to” (epi) genetics; the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.

Question 19

evolutionary psychology

Answer 19

he study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

Question 20

natural selection t

Answer 20

the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Question 21

mutation

Answer 21

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change.

Question 22

How are Belyaev and Trut’s breeding practices similar to, and how do they differ from, the way natural selection normally occurs?

Answer 22

Over multiple generations, Belyaev and Trut selected and bred foxes that exhibited a trait they desired: tameness. This process is similar to naturally occurring selection, but it differs in that natural selection is much slower, and normally favors traits (including those arising from mutations) that contribute to reproduction and survival.

Question 23

social script

Answer 23

a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.

Question 24

How do evolutionary psychologists explain male-female differences in sexuality?

Answer 24

Evolutionary psychologists theorize that females have inherited their ancestors’ tendencies to be more cautious sexually because of the challenges associated with incubating and nurturing offspring. Males have inherited a tendency to be more casual about sex, because their act of fathering requires a smaller investment.

Question 25

What are the three main criticisms of the evolutionary explanation of human sexuality?

Answer 25

(1) It starts with an effect and works backward to propose an explanation. (2) This explanation may overlook the effects of cultural expectations and socialization. (3) Men could use such explanations to rationalize irresponsible behavior toward women.

Question 26

What is the selection effect, and how might it affect a teen’s decision to join sports teams at school?

Answer 26

Adolescents tend to select similar others and to sort themselves into like-minded groups. For an athletic teen, this could lead to finding other athletic teens and joining school teams together.

Question 27

culture

Answer 27

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Question 28

norm

Answer 28

an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior.

Question 29

individualism

Answer 29

giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.

Question 30

collectivism

Answer 30

giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly.

Question 31

How do people in individualist and collectivist cultures differ?

Answer 31

Individualists give priority to personal goals over group goals and tend to define their identity in terms of their own personal attributes. Collectivists give priority to group goals over individual goals and tend to define their identity in terms of group identifications.

Question 32

sex

Answer 32

in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male and female.

Question 33

gender

Answer 33

in psychology, the socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and woman.

Question 34

aggression

Answer 34

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.

Question 35

relational aggression

Answer 35

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person’s relationship or social standing.

Question 36

___________ (Men/Women) are more likely to commit relational aggression, and ___________ (men/women) are more likely to commit physical aggression.

Answer 36

Women; men

Question 37

X chromosome

Answer 37

the sex chromosome found in both males and females. Females typically have two X chromosomes; males typically have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

Question 38

Y chromosome

Answer 38

the sex chromosome typically found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

Question 39

testosterone

Answer 39

the most important male sex hormone. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.

Question 40

puberty

Answer 40

the period of sexual maturation, when a person becomes capable of reproducing.

Question 41

primary sex characteristics

Answer 41

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.

Question 42

secondary sex characteristics

Answer 42

nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.

Question 43

spermarche

Answer 43

[sper-MAR-key] the first ejaculation.

Question 44

menarche

Answer 44

[meh-NAR-key] the first menstrual period.

Question 45

Prenatal sexual development begins about ___________ weeks after conception. Adolescence is marked by the onset of ___________.

Answer 45

seven; puberty

Question 46

intersex

Answer 46

a condition present at birth due to unusual combinations of male and female chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy; possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes.

Question 47

role

Answer 47

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

Question 48

gender role

Answer 48

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females.

Question 49

What are gender roles, and what do their variations tell us about our human capacity for learning and adaptation?

Answer 49

Gender roles are social rules or norms for accepted and expected female and male behaviors. The norms associated with various roles, including gender roles, vary widely in different cultural contexts, which is proof that we are able to learn and adapt to the social demands of different environments.

Question 50

gender identity

Answer 50

our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two.

Question 51

social learning theory

Answer 51

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

Question 52

gender typing

Answer 52

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.

Question 53

androgyny

Answer 53

displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics.

Question 54

transgender

Answer 54

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth-designated sex.

Question 55

How does the biopsychosocial approach explain our individual development?

Answer 55

The biopsychosocial approach considers all the factors that influence our individual development: biological factors (including evolution and our genes, hormones, and brain), psychological factors (including our experiences, beliefs, feelings, and expectations), and social-cultural factors (including parental and peer influences, cultural individualism or collectivism, and gender norms).