Chapter Four Flashcards
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
heredity
the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.
environment
every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.
chromosomes
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.
genes
the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins.
genome
the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes.
Put the following cell structures in order from smallest to largest: nucleus, gene, chromosome.
gene, chromosome, nucleus
identical (monozygotic) twins
develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.
fraternal (dizygotic) twins
develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment.
How do researchers use twin and adoption studies to learn about psychological principles?
Researchers use twin and adoption studies to understand how much variation among individuals is due to genetic makeup and how much is due to environmental factors. Some studies compare the traits and behaviors of identical twins (same genes) and fraternal twins (different genes, as in any two siblings). They also compare adopted children with their adoptive and biological parents. Some studies compare traits and behaviors of twins raised together or separately.
temperament
a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.
heritability
the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.
Those studying the heritability of a trait try to determine how much of the person-to-person variation in that trait among members of a specific group is due to their differing ___________.
genes
interaction
the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).
molecular genetics
the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes.
molecular behavior genetics
the study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior.
epigenetics
“above” or “in addition to” (epi) genetics; the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.
evolutionary psychology
he study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
natural selection t
the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
mutation
a random error in gene replication that leads to a change.
How are Belyaev and Trut’s breeding practices similar to, and how do they differ from, the way natural selection normally occurs?
Over multiple generations, Belyaev and Trut selected and bred foxes that exhibited a trait they desired: tameness. This process is similar to naturally occurring selection, but it differs in that natural selection is much slower, and normally favors traits (including those arising from mutations) that contribute to reproduction and survival.
social script
a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.
How do evolutionary psychologists explain male-female differences in sexuality?
Evolutionary psychologists theorize that females have inherited their ancestors’ tendencies to be more cautious sexually because of the challenges associated with incubating and nurturing offspring. Males have inherited a tendency to be more casual about sex, because their act of fathering requires a smaller investment.
What are the three main criticisms of the evolutionary explanation of human sexuality?
(1) It starts with an effect and works backward to propose an explanation. (2) This explanation may overlook the effects of cultural expectations and socialization. (3) Men could use such explanations to rationalize irresponsible behavior toward women.
What is the selection effect, and how might it affect a teen’s decision to join sports teams at school?
Adolescents tend to select similar others and to sort themselves into like-minded groups. For an athletic teen, this could lead to finding other athletic teens and joining school teams together.
culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
norm
an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior.
individualism
giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.
collectivism
giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly.
How do people in individualist and collectivist cultures differ?
Individualists give priority to personal goals over group goals and tend to define their identity in terms of their own personal attributes. Collectivists give priority to group goals over individual goals and tend to define their identity in terms of group identifications.
sex
in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male and female.
gender
in psychology, the socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and woman.
aggression
any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.
relational aggression
an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person’s relationship or social standing.
___________ (Men/Women) are more likely to commit relational aggression, and ___________ (men/women) are more likely to commit physical aggression.
Women; men
X chromosome
the sex chromosome found in both males and females. Females typically have two X chromosomes; males typically have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.
Y chromosome
the sex chromosome typically found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.
testosterone
the most important male sex hormone. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.
puberty
the period of sexual maturation, when a person becomes capable of reproducing.
primary sex characteristics
the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.
secondary sex characteristics
nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.
spermarche
[sper-MAR-key] the first ejaculation.
menarche
[meh-NAR-key] the first menstrual period.
Prenatal sexual development begins about ___________ weeks after conception. Adolescence is marked by the onset of ___________.
seven; puberty
intersex
a condition present at birth due to unusual combinations of male and female chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy; possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes.
role
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.
gender role
a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females.
What are gender roles, and what do their variations tell us about our human capacity for learning and adaptation?
Gender roles are social rules or norms for accepted and expected female and male behaviors. The norms associated with various roles, including gender roles, vary widely in different cultural contexts, which is proof that we are able to learn and adapt to the social demands of different environments.
gender identity
our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two.
social learning theory
the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.
gender typing
the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.
androgyny
displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics.
transgender
an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth-designated sex.
How does the biopsychosocial approach explain our individual development?
The biopsychosocial approach considers all the factors that influence our individual development: biological factors (including evolution and our genes, hormones, and brain), psychological factors (including our experiences, beliefs, feelings, and expectations), and social-cultural factors (including parental and peer influences, cultural individualism or collectivism, and gender norms).
