Chapter Fourteen

Question 1

personality

Answer 1

an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Question 2

psychodynamic theories

Answer 2

theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences.

Question 3

psychoanalysis

Answer 3

Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions.

Question 4

unconscious

Answer 4

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

Question 5

free association

Answer 5

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

Question 6

id

Answer 6

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

Question 7

ego

Answer 7

the largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

Question 8

superego

Answer 8

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.

Question 9

psychosexual stages

Answer 9

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.

Question 10

Oedipus [ED-uh-puss] complex

Answer 10

according to Freud, a boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father.

Question 11

identification

Answer 11

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents’ values into their developing superegos.

Question 12

fixation

Answer 12

in personality theory, according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved.

Question 13

defense mechanisms

Answer 13

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.

Question 14

repression

Answer 14

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

Question 15

According to Freud’s ideas about the three-part personality structure, the ____________ operates on the reality principle and tries to balance demands in a way that produces long-term pleasure rather than pain; the _____________ operates on the pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification; and the _____________ represents the voice of our internalized ideals (our conscience).

Answer 15

ego; id; superego.

Question 16

In the psychoanalytic view, conflicts unresolved during one of the psychosexual stages may lead to _____________ at that stage.

Answer 16

fixation.

Question 17

Freud believed that our defense mechanisms operate _____________ (consciously/unconsciously) and defend us against _____________.

Answer 17

unconsciously; anxiety

Question 18

collective unconscious

Answer 18

Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history.

Question 19

projective test

Answer 19

a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics.

Question 20

projective test

Answer 20

a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics.

Question 21

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Answer 21

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

Question 22

Rorschach inkblot test

Answer 22

the most widely used projective test; a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.

Question 23

terror-management theory

Answer 23

a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people’s emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death.

Question 24

What are three big ideas that have survived from Freud’s psychoanalytic theory? What are three ways in which Freud’s theory has been criticized?

Answer 24

Freud is credited with first drawing attention to (1) the importance of childhood experiences, (2) the existence of the unconscious mind, and (3) our self-protective defense mechanisms. Freud’s theory has been criticized as (1) not scientifically testable and offering after-the-fact explanations, (2) focusing too much on sexual conflicts in childhood, and (3) being based on the idea of repression, which has not been supported by modern research.

Question 25

Which elements of traditional psychoanalysis have modern-day psychodynamic theorists and therapists retained, and which elements have they mostly left behind?

Answer 25

Today’s psychodynamic theorists and therapists still rely on the interviewing techniques that Freud used, and they still tend to focus on childhood experiences and attachments, unresolved conflicts, and unconscious influences. However, they are not likely to dwell on fixation at any psychosexual stage, or the idea that sexual issues are the basis of our personality.

Question 26

humanistic theories

Answer 26

theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth.

Question 27

hierarchy of needs

Answer 27

Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.

Question 28

self-actualization

Answer 28

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential.

Question 29

self-transcendence

Answer 29

according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self.

Question 30

unconditional positive regard

Answer 30

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help people develop self-awareness and self-acceptance.

Question 31

self-concept

Answer 31

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”

Question 32

How did the humanistic theories provide a fresh perspective?

Answer 32

The humanistic theories sought to turn psychology’s attention away from drives and conflicts and toward our growth potential. This movement’s focus on the way people strive for self-determination and self-realization was in contrast to Freudian theory and strict behaviorism.

Question 33

What does it mean to be empathic? How about self-actualized? Which humanistic psychologists used these terms?

Answer 33

To be empathic is to share and mirror another person’s feelings. Carl Rogers believed that people nurture growth in others by being empathic. Abraham Maslow proposed that self-actualization is the motivation to fulfill one’s potential, and one of the ultimate psychological needs (the other is self-transcendence).

Question 34

trait

Answer 34

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.

Question 35

Which two primary dimensions did Hans Eysenck and Sybil Eysenck propose for describing personality variation?

Answer 35

introversion–extraversion and emotional stability–instability

Question 36

personality inventory

Answer 36

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

Question 37

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

Answer 37

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.

Question 38

empirically derived test

Answer 38

a test (such as the MMPI) created by selecting from a pool of items those that discriminate between groups.

Question 39

What are the Big Five personality factors, and why are they scientifically useful?

Answer 39

The Big Five personality factors are conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism (emotional stability vs. instability), openness, and extraversion: CANOE. These factors may be objectively measured, they are relatively stable over the life span, and they apply to all cultures in which they have been studied.

Question 40

How well do personality test scores predict our behavior? Explain.

Answer 40

Our scores on personality tests predict our average behavior across many situations much better than they predict our specific behavior in any given situation.

Question 41

social-cognitive perspective

Answer 41

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits (including their thinking) and their social context.

Question 42

reciprocal determinism

Answer 42

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.

Question 43

Albert Bandura proposed the ____________ - _____________ perspective on personality, which emphasizes the interaction of people with their environment. To describe the interacting influences of behavior, thoughts, and environment, he used the term _____________ ___________.

Answer 43

social-cognitive; reciprocal determinism

Question 44

What is the best way to predict a person’s future behavior?

Answer 44

Examine the person’s past behavior patterns in similar situations.

Question 45

self

Answer 45

in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Question 46

spotlight effect

Answer 46

overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us).

Question 47

self-esteem

Answer 47

one’s feelings of high or low self-worth.

Question 48

self-efficacy

Answer 48

one’s sense of competence and effectiveness.

Question 49

self-serving bias

Answer 49

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably.

Question 50

narcissism

Answer 50

excessive self-love and self-absorption.

Question 51

What are the positive and negative effects of high self-esteem?

Answer 51

People who feel confident in their abilities are often happier, have greater motivation, and are less susceptible to depression. Inflated self-esteem can lead to self-serving bias, greater aggression, and narcissism.c

Question 52

The tendency to accept responsibility for success and blame circumstances or bad luck for failure is called ____________ - __________ ___________.

Answer 52

self-serving bias.

Question 53

_______________ (Secure/Defensive) self-esteem is linked to angry and aggressive behavior. ______________ (Secure/Defensive) self-esteem is a healthier self-image that allows us to focus beyond ourselves and enjoy a higher quality of life.

Answer 53

Defensive; Secure