Chapter one Flashcards
Development
the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the human life span
goals
- describe: to establish norms
- explain: why and how changes are occurring
- understand: anticipate and prepare
- modify/influence: to initiate positive changes for optimal development.
Characteristics of Life-Span Perspective
- development is lifelong
- Development is multidimensional
- development is Plastic
- Development is contextual
- development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss
- development is a Co-Construction of Biology, Culture, and the Individual
Development is multidimensial
Three dimensions
a. biological/physical - growth, what’s the average growth, skills, nutrition, health factors
b. cognitive - intelligence, changes in thought, factors influence, language development
c. socioemotional - changes in relationships, personality, emotions
interdependency among the areas - they influence each other
development is plastic
has the capacity for change
development is contextual
context at which development is happening
development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss
growth until about middle adulthood, after which maintenance
development is a co-construction of Biology, culture, and the individual
interaction of all those working together
nature and nurture
biological inheritance vs. environmental experiences
stability and change
the degree to which early traits and characteristics persist through life or change
continuity and discontinuity
the degree to which development involves either gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity).
Theories of Development
- the way we explain development depends on the way we view the nature of human beings
- no one theory of human development is universally accepted, and no one theory explains all facets of development
theory
an interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain phenomena and make predictions.
Psychoanalytic theories
(Freud’s Psychosexual theory and Erikson’s Psychosocial theory)
-development is primarily unconscious and heavily covered by emotion. Early childhood experience with parents extensively shape development.
Freud’s Theory
Three structures of personality: Id, Ego and Super Ego.
Id
present at birth, totally unconscious, pleasure principle
Ego
age 1, mostly conscious, partly unconscious, reality principle, decision making center, logic, rational, ego’s job to satisfy Id in socially acceptable ways
Super Ego
age 3, mostly unconscious & partly conscious, operates from the morality principle, all of your knowledge right & wrong (conscience) rewards you with pride or punishes with guilt
three levels of consciousness
conscious
subconscious
unconscious
psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital)
- conflicts occur in stages where pleasure shifts from one body zone to another
- too much or too little gratification in any stage cause fixation.
fixation
an arrest in development
oral
from birth to 1 1/2, source of gratification is mouth - sucking, chewing, increase security and relieves tension
anal
from 1 1/2 to 3, source of pleasure- process of elimination (anus)- developing independence, potty training
phallic
from 3-6 center of pleasure- genitals
-boys-oedipus conflict, girls -electra conflict - (wants to marry/possess mother or father)
sex role socialization begins in phallic stage and continues into latency stage
latency
from 6 to puberty- repress sexual urges and devote time and energy to learning and physical and social activities, fall in love with opposite sex, peers
- at this point, Oedipus/Electra complex has been:
a. partially repressed
b. partially converted into acceptable feelings
c. partially resolved thru the process of identification
genital
(puberty onward) sexual energy resurfaces and is directed toward opposite sex peers
- functioning at this level is affected by the amount of libidinal energy available for appropriate concerns, which in turn depends on the extent of earlier fixations.
Erikson’s theory
widely accepted, believed that Freud placed too much emphasis on the sexual basis of behavior and not enough on the social motivators
-agreed with importance of early childhood experiences & unconscious motivation but rejected Freud’s neglect of adult years
Erikson’s Eight Psychosocial Stages
(tasks to master)- if mastered a positive quality is built into personality, if not a negative quality
trust vs mistrust
birth - 1, consistent quality care to meet the child’s needs, virture: hope
autonomy vs shame & doubt
1-3, give the child limited choices to develop independence, virtue: will
initiative vs guilt
3-6, we need structure, expectations and guidance, virtue: purpose
industry vs inferiority
6-12, help a child to discover what their good at, virtue: skill
identity vs identity confusion
12-20, explore, experiment, ask questions, virtue: fidelity ( commitment)
intimacy vs isolation
20-30, forming relationships (siblings, parents, coworkers, peers, sig other, etc), virtue: love
generativity vs. stagnation
40-65, giving back to the next generation, virtue: caring
integrity vs despair
65- up, reflecting back on life and are we at peace with the life we lived, virtue: wisdom
piaget
cognitive development is the combined result of maturation of the brain and nervous system and adaptation to our environment
cognitive theories
the act of knowing
mental functioning depend on two inborn processes:
- organization
2. Adaptation
organization
grouping isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher- order, more smoothly functioning cognitive system
adapation
to new observations and experiences by:
a. assimilation - using existing schemas to deal with new information or experiences
b. accomodations - adjusting schemas to fit new information and experiences
Four Stages of Cognitive Development
each consists of a distinct way of thinking, a different way of understanding the world.
- sensorimotor
- preoperational
- concrete operational
- formal operations
sensorimotor
birth to 2, the infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions. An infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage.
preoperational
2-7, the child begins to represent the world with words and images which reflect increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action.
concrete operational
7-11, the child can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets.
formal operations
11 - +, the adolescent reasons in more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways.
Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories
emphasizes the role of environmental influences in molding behavior - emphasizes the continuity in development and argue that development does not occur in stages
Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
learning from the consequences of behavior so that the consequences (desirable or undesirable) change the probability of the behavior’s occurrence
reinforcement (rewards)
any stimuli that increases behavior
punishment
any stimuli that decreases behavior.
Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura)
emphasizes the role of both cognition (think about what is happening, evaluate it and alter our responses accordingly) and environmental influences.
observational learning/modeling/imitation
learning that occurs through observing what others do.
Ethological Theory
emphasizes that behavior is a product of evolution and is biologically determined. Each species learns what adaptations are necessary for survival.
examples: characteristics of a newborn, bonding/attachment, importance of progression from dependence to independence
Ecological Theory (Bronfenbrenner)
stresses environmental factors that influence development.
microsystem
is the setting in which the individual lives (families, peers, neighborhood)
mesosystem
involves relations between microsystems or connections between contexts. ex. the relation of family experiences to school experiences, school experiences to church experiences, and family experiences to peer experiences.
exosystem
consists of links between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual’s immediate context. Example, a husband’s or child’s experience at home may be influenced by a mother’s experiences at work. The mother might receive a promotion that requires more travel, which might increase conflict with the husband or change patterns of interaction with the child.
macrosystem
involves the culture in which the individual lives.
