Chapter One Flashcards
What attitudes have helped make modern science possible?
Curiosity, skepticism, humility.
Hindsight Bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
Critical Thinking
Thinking that doesn’t blindly accept arguments and conclusions, but rather examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
Scientific Theory
An exam platoon using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Operational Definition
A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables
Replication
Repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
Case Study
Observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in hopes of revealing universal principles
Survey
Technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes of behaviors of people, usually by random sampling
False Consensus Effect
Tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs/behaviors
What is the best basis for generalizing?
From a representative sample of cases
Population
All the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study
Samples
The small group of participants (population) out of the total number available that a researcher studios
Representative
A sample that fairly reflects the population being studied
Random Sample
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Nonrepresentative
A sample that unfairly reflects the population being studied
Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and how well either factor predicts the other
Scatter plot
Graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationships between the variables and the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.
Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship where none exists
Wording Effect
The way in which a question is worded can affect the outcome.
ex: Was the war on terror worth fighting? -or- Did the USA do right by responding to the events of 9/11?
Double-Blind Procedure
A experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the participants have received the treatment or placebo. Commonly used in drug evaluation studies.
What is placebo Latin for?
I-Shall-Please
Placebo Effect
Experimental results caused by expectation alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent
Experimental Condition
The condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
Control Condition
The condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.
Independent Variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
Dependent Variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
Descriptive Research Method
Basic purpose is to observe and record behavior
Correlational Research Method
Basic purpose is to detect naturally occurring relationships; to assess now well one variable predicts another
Experimental Research Method
Basic purpose is to explore cause and effect
Experimenter Bias
The unconscious tendency to for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently to increase the chance of confirming their hypothesis
After gathering data, researchers must…
Organize and summarize information, then make inferences
What’s the most common way to organize data?
Make a bar graph.
Measure of Central Tendency
Mean, median, or mode.
It’s a single score that represents a whole set of scores.
Median
The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it, half the scores are below it.
Mean
The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores then dividing by the number of scores. This is the most commonly reported measure of central tendency.
Range
The difference between the highest and the lowest scores in a distribution
Standard Deviation
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean scores
3 Principles for Making Generalizations from Samples
- Representative samples are better than biased samples.
- Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable.
- More cases are better than fewer.
Statistical Significance
A statistical statement if how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. If the odds of an event occurring by chance is greater than 5%, then the information is unreliable.
This helps psychologists decide whether differences are meaningful.
Culture
The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
Mode
The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
