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Psychology 121 > Chapter 9 > Flashcards

Chapter 9 Flashcards

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1
Q

Elements of Cognition (3)

A
  1. Proposition
  2. Cognitive Schemas
  3. Mental Images
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2
Q

Proposition

A

A unit of meaning that is made up of concepts and expresses a single idea

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3
Q

Cognitive Schemas

A

Integrated mental network of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world

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4
Q

Mental Images

A

Mental representation that mirrors or resembles the thing it represents (occur in most sensory modalities)

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5
Q

Subconscious processes

A

Mental processes occurring outside of conscious awareness but accessible to consciousness when necessary (e.g., driving a car)

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6
Q

Nonconscious Processes

A

Mental processes occurring outside of and not available to conscious awareness (e.g., relying on insight or intuition)

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7
Q

Implicit Learning

A

Learning that occurs when you acquire knowledge about something without being aware of how you did so and without being able to state exactly what it is you have learned

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8
Q

Mindlessness

A

Mental inflexibility, inertia and obliviousness to the present context and surrondings

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9
Q

Rational Reasoning

A

Drawing conclusions or inferences from observations, facts, or assumptions

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10
Q

Formal Reasoning Problems

A

Problems solved using established methods (algorithms & logic); usually a single correct solution

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11
Q

Informal Reasoning Problems

A

There is often no clearly correct solution

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12
Q

Deductive Reasoning

A

When a conclusion follows necessarily from certain premises

If premises true, conclusion must be true

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13
Q

Inductive Reasoning

A

When the premises provide support for a conclusion, but it’s still possible for conclusion to be false. Answer that is probably true but maybe not…

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14
Q

Heuristic

A

Rule of thumb that suggests a course of action or guides problem-solving but does not guarantee an optimal solution, best way to do something

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15
Q

Dialectic Reasoning

A

Process in which opposing facts are weighed & compared in order to determine the best solution or resolve differences (weigh pros and cons)

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16
Q

Types of Reflective Judgement (3)

A
  1. Pre-reflective Stages
  2. Quasi-reflecive Stages
  3. Reflective Stages
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17
Q

Pre-refletive Stages

A

assumption that correct answers can be obtained through the senses or from the authorities

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18
Q

Quasi-reflective Stages

A

recognize limits to absolute certainty, realize judgments should be supported by reasons, yet pay attention to evidence that confirms beliefs

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19
Q

Reflective Stages

A

consider evidence from a variety of sources and reason dialectically

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20
Q

Barriers to Reasoning Rationally

A
  1. Exaggerating the Improbable
  2. Avoiding Loss
  3. The Fairness Bias
  4. The Hindsight Bias
  5. The Confirmation Bias
  6. Mental Sets
  7. The Need for Cognitive Consistency
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21
Q

Exaggerating the Improbable

A

Common bias to exaggerate the probability of rare events (e.g., getting in a plane crash)

Strongly influenced by the affect and availability heuristics when making judgements

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22
Q

Affect heuristic

A

tendency to consult one’s emotions instead of estimating probabilities objectively

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23
Q

Availability heuristic

A

tendency to judge the probability of a type of event by how easy it is to think of examples or instances

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24
Q

Avoiding Loss

A

We respond more cautiously when choices are framed in terms of the risk of losing something than if same choice framed in terms of gain
Goal to Minimize Loss

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25
Q

Framing Effect

A

The tendency for people’s choices to be affected by how a choice is presented or framed

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26
Q

The Fairness Bias

A

A sense of fairness often takes precedence over rational self-interest when people make economic choices

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27
Q

The Hindsight Bias

A

The tendency to overestimate one’s ability to have predicted an event once the outcome is known; the “I knew it all along” phenomenon

28
Q

The Confirmation Bias

A

The tendency to look for or pay attention to only information that confirms one’s own belief

29
Q

Mental Sets

A

A tendency to solve problems using procedures that worked before on similar problems

30
Q

Cognitive Dissonance

A

a state of tension the occurs when a person holds two cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent, or when a person’s belief is incongruent with his or her behaviour

31
Q

3 Conditions whee you are most likely to reduce dissonance

A
  1. When you need to justify a choice or decision that you freely made (e.g. post-decision dissonance)
  2. When you need to justify behaviour that conflicts with your view of yourself
  3. When you need to justify the effort put into a decision or choice (justification of effort)
32
Q

Intelligence

A

An inferred characteristic of an individual, usually defined as the ability to profit from experience, acquire knowledge, think abstractly, act purposefully, or adapt to changes in the environment

Measured using either psychometric or cognitive approaches to understanding

33
Q

Psychometric approach to intelligence

A

Measurement of mental abilities, traits, and precesses

34
Q

Factor Analysis

A

statistical method for analyzing intercorrelations among measures or test scores

35
Q

G Factor

A

a general intellectual ability assumed by many theorists to underlie specific mental abilities and talents

36
Q

Invention of IQ Test

A

Originally developed to identify children that were slow learners for remedial purposes

37
Q

IQ Test Scoring

A

Scoring system devised to yield an intelligent quotient (IQ): originally MA/CA x 100; now derived from norms provided from standardized intelligence tests (he never meant for it to be given to large groups of people but in the case of individual circumstances)

38
Q

IQ Test Development

A

Concept of mental age (MA): level of intellectual development relative to that of other children

Binet & Simon examined this by measuring memory, vocabulary, & perceptual discrimination

39
Q

Normal IQ

A

-Bell-shaped curve
-Very high and low
scores are rare
-68% of people have
IQ between 85-115
-99.7% between 55-145

40
Q

3 Revised IQ Tests

A
  1. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test
  2. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
  3. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
41
Q

Culture and IQ Tests

A

Questions on intelligence tests may contain cultural biases

Attempts to make tests culture-free have backfired as cultures may employ different problem-solving strategies

Cultural values and experiences influence a person’s outcomes

E.g., attitude toward exams, comfort in testing situations, motivation, rapport, competitiveness, comfort in problem- solving, familiarity with tests

42
Q

Expectations and IQ Tests

A

Our own expectations about how we will do (often influenced by stereotypes) may alter people’s performance

43
Q

Stereotype Threat

A

a burden of doubt a person feels about his or her performance, due to negative stereotypes about his or her group’s abilities

44
Q

Cognitive approach to intelligence

A

Assumes there are many kinds of intelligence and emphasizes the strategies people use when thinking about a problem and arriving at a solution

Reject the g factor as resulting from abilities taught & emphasized in school/society rather than how we think and problem-solve

45
Q

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

A

Triarchic theory of intelligence (Sternberg, 1988)

Emphasizes information processing strategies, the ability to creatively transfer skills to new situations, and the practical application of intelligence

46
Q

Aspects of intelligence

A
  1. Componential or ‘analytical’ (involves metacognition-knowledge or awareness of one’s own cognitive processes)
  2. Experiential or creative- your creativity in transferring skills to new situations
  3. Contextual or practical (acquire tacit knowledge)’ practical application of intelligence in different contex
47
Q

Domains of Intelligence Included by Gardner

A

Musical aptitude, kinesthetic intelligence, and capacity for into oneself, others or the natural world

Argued that domains are relatively independent

Emotional Intelligence: ability to identify your own and other people’s emotions accurately, express your emotions clearly, and regulate emotions in yourself and others.

48
Q

Debate Remains Over…

A

the issue of intelligence being a single “g” factor versus multiple intelligences

49
Q

Dynamic Testing

A

reveals a person’s ability to learn

50
Q

Motivation and Intelligence

A

Long-term studies of intelligence have demonstrated that motivation and self-discipline, not IQ, was what distinguished 100 most successful from 100 least successful men

Motivation to work hard at intellectual tasks differs as a function of culture (& values)

E.g., studies with children of different cultures on mathematical & reading abilities

51
Q

Beliefs about Intelligence

A

Asian parents, teachers, and students are more likely to believe math ability comes from studying
North Americans more likely to view ability as innate

52
Q

Different Cultural Standards

A

North American parents had lower academic standards for kids

53
Q

Different Cultural Values

A

North American children value education less

54
Q

Cognitive Ethology

A

The study of cognitive processes in nonhuman animals

Some animals appear to be able to:

Anticipate future events, make plans, coordinate activities with others

E.g., Köhler (1925) & chimpanzee Sultan

55
Q

Theory of Mind (can animals demonstrate?)

A

A system of beliefs about the way one’s mind and the minds of others work

Knowledge of how individuals are affected by their beliefs and feelings

56
Q

Qualifications of Language (3)

A
  1. Combinations must be meaningful
  2. Must permit displacement
  3. Must have grammar that permits productivity
57
Q

Examples of animals that can be taught to communicate in ways that resemble language

A

Chimpanzees & bonobos can use American Sign Language (ASL) & symbol boards

Other examples include dolphins, border collies, and grey parrots who have been taught various skills relying on language

58
Q

Anthropomorphism

A

The tendency to falsely attribute human qualities to nonhuman beings

59
Q

Anthropodenial

A

The tendency to think, mistakenly, that human beings have nothing in common with other animals

60
Q

Remote Associates Test

A

a test of mental flexibility necessary for creativity

61
Q

Personality characteristics more important for creativity than IQ (3)

A
  1. Nonconformity
  2. Curiosity
  3. Persistence
62
Q

Nonconformity

A

lack of concern for what others think of them

63
Q

Curiosity

A

Open to new experiences

64
Q

Persistence

A

Willingness to work hard to make illumination last

65
Q

Creativity increases when (4)

A
  1. Schools and employers encourage intrinsic motivation
  2. People have control over how to perform a task or solve a problem
  3. Are evaluated unobtrusively instead of being observed or judged
  4. People are allowed to work independently
66
Q

To become more creative (2)

A
  1. Cultivate qualities in yourself

2. Seek out situations that allow you to express your abilities

Psychology 121 (10 decks)

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