Chapter 9 Flashcards
Elements of Cognition (3)
- Proposition
- Cognitive Schemas
- Mental Images
Proposition
A unit of meaning that is made up of concepts and expresses a single idea
Cognitive Schemas
Integrated mental network of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world
Mental Images
Mental representation that mirrors or resembles the thing it represents (occur in most sensory modalities)
Subconscious processes
Mental processes occurring outside of conscious awareness but accessible to consciousness when necessary (e.g., driving a car)
Nonconscious Processes
Mental processes occurring outside of and not available to conscious awareness (e.g., relying on insight or intuition)
Implicit Learning
Learning that occurs when you acquire knowledge about something without being aware of how you did so and without being able to state exactly what it is you have learned
Mindlessness
Mental inflexibility, inertia and obliviousness to the present context and surrondings
Rational Reasoning
Drawing conclusions or inferences from observations, facts, or assumptions
Formal Reasoning Problems
Problems solved using established methods (algorithms & logic); usually a single correct solution
Informal Reasoning Problems
There is often no clearly correct solution
Deductive Reasoning
When a conclusion follows necessarily from certain premises
If premises true, conclusion must be true
Inductive Reasoning
When the premises provide support for a conclusion, but it’s still possible for conclusion to be false. Answer that is probably true but maybe not…
Heuristic
Rule of thumb that suggests a course of action or guides problem-solving but does not guarantee an optimal solution, best way to do something
Dialectic Reasoning
Process in which opposing facts are weighed & compared in order to determine the best solution or resolve differences (weigh pros and cons)
Types of Reflective Judgement (3)
- Pre-reflective Stages
- Quasi-reflecive Stages
- Reflective Stages
Pre-refletive Stages
assumption that correct answers can be obtained through the senses or from the authorities
Quasi-reflective Stages
recognize limits to absolute certainty, realize judgments should be supported by reasons, yet pay attention to evidence that confirms beliefs
Reflective Stages
consider evidence from a variety of sources and reason dialectically
Barriers to Reasoning Rationally
- Exaggerating the Improbable
- Avoiding Loss
- The Fairness Bias
- The Hindsight Bias
- The Confirmation Bias
- Mental Sets
- The Need for Cognitive Consistency
Exaggerating the Improbable
Common bias to exaggerate the probability of rare events (e.g., getting in a plane crash)
Strongly influenced by the affect and availability heuristics when making judgements
Affect heuristic
tendency to consult one’s emotions instead of estimating probabilities objectively
Availability heuristic
tendency to judge the probability of a type of event by how easy it is to think of examples or instances
Avoiding Loss
We respond more cautiously when choices are framed in terms of the risk of losing something than if same choice framed in terms of gain
Goal to Minimize Loss
Framing Effect
The tendency for people’s choices to be affected by how a choice is presented or framed
The Fairness Bias
A sense of fairness often takes precedence over rational self-interest when people make economic choices
The Hindsight Bias
The tendency to overestimate one’s ability to have predicted an event once the outcome is known; the “I knew it all along” phenomenon
The Confirmation Bias
The tendency to look for or pay attention to only information that confirms one’s own belief
Mental Sets
A tendency to solve problems using procedures that worked before on similar problems
Cognitive Dissonance
a state of tension the occurs when a person holds two cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent, or when a person’s belief is incongruent with his or her behaviour
3 Conditions whee you are most likely to reduce dissonance
- When you need to justify a choice or decision that you freely made (e.g. post-decision dissonance)
- When you need to justify behaviour that conflicts with your view of yourself
- When you need to justify the effort put into a decision or choice (justification of effort)
Intelligence
An inferred characteristic of an individual, usually defined as the ability to profit from experience, acquire knowledge, think abstractly, act purposefully, or adapt to changes in the environment
Measured using either psychometric or cognitive approaches to understanding
Psychometric approach to intelligence
Measurement of mental abilities, traits, and precesses
Factor Analysis
statistical method for analyzing intercorrelations among measures or test scores
G Factor
a general intellectual ability assumed by many theorists to underlie specific mental abilities and talents
Invention of IQ Test
Originally developed to identify children that were slow learners for remedial purposes
IQ Test Scoring
Scoring system devised to yield an intelligent quotient (IQ): originally MA/CA x 100; now derived from norms provided from standardized intelligence tests (he never meant for it to be given to large groups of people but in the case of individual circumstances)
IQ Test Development
Concept of mental age (MA): level of intellectual development relative to that of other children
Binet & Simon examined this by measuring memory, vocabulary, & perceptual discrimination
Normal IQ
-Bell-shaped curve
-Very high and low
scores are rare
-68% of people have
IQ between 85-115
-99.7% between 55-145
3 Revised IQ Tests
- Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test
- Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
- Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
Culture and IQ Tests
Questions on intelligence tests may contain cultural biases
Attempts to make tests culture-free have backfired as cultures may employ different problem-solving strategies
Cultural values and experiences influence a person’s outcomes
E.g., attitude toward exams, comfort in testing situations, motivation, rapport, competitiveness, comfort in problem- solving, familiarity with tests
Expectations and IQ Tests
Our own expectations about how we will do (often influenced by stereotypes) may alter people’s performance
Stereotype Threat
a burden of doubt a person feels about his or her performance, due to negative stereotypes about his or her group’s abilities
Cognitive approach to intelligence
Assumes there are many kinds of intelligence and emphasizes the strategies people use when thinking about a problem and arriving at a solution
Reject the g factor as resulting from abilities taught & emphasized in school/society rather than how we think and problem-solve
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Triarchic theory of intelligence (Sternberg, 1988)
Emphasizes information processing strategies, the ability to creatively transfer skills to new situations, and the practical application of intelligence
Aspects of intelligence
- Componential or ‘analytical’ (involves metacognition-knowledge or awareness of one’s own cognitive processes)
- Experiential or creative- your creativity in transferring skills to new situations
- Contextual or practical (acquire tacit knowledge)’ practical application of intelligence in different contex
Domains of Intelligence Included by Gardner
Musical aptitude, kinesthetic intelligence, and capacity for into oneself, others or the natural world
Argued that domains are relatively independent
Emotional Intelligence: ability to identify your own and other people’s emotions accurately, express your emotions clearly, and regulate emotions in yourself and others.
Debate Remains Over…
the issue of intelligence being a single “g” factor versus multiple intelligences
Dynamic Testing
reveals a person’s ability to learn
Motivation and Intelligence
Long-term studies of intelligence have demonstrated that motivation and self-discipline, not IQ, was what distinguished 100 most successful from 100 least successful men
Motivation to work hard at intellectual tasks differs as a function of culture (& values)
E.g., studies with children of different cultures on mathematical & reading abilities
Beliefs about Intelligence
Asian parents, teachers, and students are more likely to believe math ability comes from studying
North Americans more likely to view ability as innate
Different Cultural Standards
North American parents had lower academic standards for kids
Different Cultural Values
North American children value education less
Cognitive Ethology
The study of cognitive processes in nonhuman animals
Some animals appear to be able to:
Anticipate future events, make plans, coordinate activities with others
E.g., Köhler (1925) & chimpanzee Sultan
Theory of Mind (can animals demonstrate?)
A system of beliefs about the way one’s mind and the minds of others work
Knowledge of how individuals are affected by their beliefs and feelings
Qualifications of Language (3)
- Combinations must be meaningful
- Must permit displacement
- Must have grammar that permits productivity
Examples of animals that can be taught to communicate in ways that resemble language
Chimpanzees & bonobos can use American Sign Language (ASL) & symbol boards
Other examples include dolphins, border collies, and grey parrots who have been taught various skills relying on language
Anthropomorphism
The tendency to falsely attribute human qualities to nonhuman beings
Anthropodenial
The tendency to think, mistakenly, that human beings have nothing in common with other animals
Remote Associates Test
a test of mental flexibility necessary for creativity
Personality characteristics more important for creativity than IQ (3)
- Nonconformity
- Curiosity
- Persistence
Nonconformity
lack of concern for what others think of them
Curiosity
Open to new experiences
Persistence
Willingness to work hard to make illumination last
Creativity increases when (4)
- Schools and employers encourage intrinsic motivation
- People have control over how to perform a task or solve a problem
- Are evaluated unobtrusively instead of being observed or judged
- People are allowed to work independently
To become more creative (2)
- Cultivate qualities in yourself
2. Seek out situations that allow you to express your abilities
