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Psychology 121 > Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

5 characteristics of the ideal scientist

A
  1. Precision 2. Scepticism 3. Reliance on empirical evidence 4. Willingness to make “risky predictions” 5. Openness
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2
Q

Precision

A

Following the ‘Scientific Method’

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3
Q

Theory

A

Organized system of assumptions and principles that purports to explain phenomena and how they are related

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4
Q

Hypothesis

A

Statement that attempts to predict or account for a set of phenomena; specifies relationships; empirically tested

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5
Q

Operational definition

A

Define terms in hypotheses by specifying he operations for observing and measuring the process or phenomenon (peer reviews and hypotheses is clear and concise)

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6
Q

Steps of precision

A

Theory or hunch -> Hypothesis -> Predictions, with operational definitions -> evidence

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7
Q

Skepticism

A
  1. Scientists don’t accept ideas based on faith or authority 2. Scepticism means treating conclusions, both old and new with caution 3. Caution balanced with openness to new ideas and evidence
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8
Q

Reliance on Empirical Evidence

A

This is to determine whether or not a prediction is true and is gathered through various research methods

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9
Q

Willingness to make “risky” predictions

A

Principle of Falsifiability and Confirmation Bias

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10
Q

Principle of Falsifiability

A

A scientific theory must make predictions that are specific enough to disconfirm the theory. Predicts not only what will happen but also what will not happen.

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11
Q

Confirmation Bias

A

Tendency to seek and accept evidence that supports our theories and ignore evidence that contradicts beliefs

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12
Q

The Princible of Falsifiability figure

A
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13
Q

Openness

A

Scientists willingness to explain the source of their ideas, how theu tested them, and whta the results were (enough clairty so replication is possible). Peer Reviewed process ensures scientific standards and provides system of checks and balances ( data and conclusions are looked on by peers for feedbacl and advice).

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14
Q

Descriptive Studies

A

The goal is to describe and predict behaviour but does not allow causal explainations. Essential for all studies is obtaining a representative sample. Example: What happened in the shock study.

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15
Q

Case Studies

A

A detailed description of a paritcular individual being studied or treated. May be used to formulate broader reearh hypotheses. Most commonly used by clinicians (occasionally by researchers in preliminary stages of inquiry).

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16
Q

Observational Studies

A

Method where researchers systematically observe and record behaviour without interference. This includes naturalistic observation and laboratory observation.

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17
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A
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18
Q

Laboratory Observation

A
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19
Q

Psychological Tests

A
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20
Q

Psychological tests can be _______ or ________?

A

Objective or projective

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21
Q

3 Characteristics of a good test.

A
  1. Standardization
  2. Reliability
  3. Validity
22
Q

Standardization

A

When a test is uniform in its procedures and scoring. Tests must be culturally sensitive and fair. Proper scores refere to norms or established standards or performance. (Norms obtained by mass testing on intended populations to determine different score ranges.)

23
Q

Reliabilty

A

Is the consistency of scores derived from a test from on time and place to the next or across scorers. There are 2 types of reliability,

  1. Test-Retest Reliability
  2. Alternate-Forms Reliability
24
Q

Validity

A

Is the ability of a test to measure what it wa designed to measure.

  1. Face Validity
  2. Content Validity
  3. Criterion Validity

E.g. The language in ‘Math Makes Sense’ auses mathematically inclined students to do poorly.

25
Q

Surveys

A

Questionnaires and interviews that ask people about experiences, attitudes or opinions. Allows for extensive data collection.

26
Q

3 Problems with Surveys

A
  1. Obtaining representative sample (volunteer basis)
  2. Truthfullness of responses
  3. Type and phrasing of questions

** People will generally volunteer if they d things well while others wil not because they do not want to be viewed badly so he representation is not good.

27
Q

Correlational Studies

A

A type of decriptive study that looks for a relationship between 2 phenomena

28
Q

Correlations

A

Measure of how strongly 2 quantifiable characteristics of behaviour (variables) are realted to one another.

29
Q

Types of Correlations (2)

A
  1. Postitive Correlations: An association between increases in one variable and increases in another.
  2. Negative Correlations: An association between increases in one variable and decreases in another.
30
Q

Measuring Correlations

A

With the correlation coefficient ( a statistical measure of correlation which ranges from -1.00 to +1.00). Often graphed with a scatter plot.

31
Q

Cautions about Correlations

A

Correlations are often reported but may be small, nonexistent, or meaningless. Correlations may be misleading and correlations do NOT establish causation!!!

32
Q

Experiments

A

A controlled test of a hypothesis in which the researcher manipulates one variable to discover its effects on another. An experiment includes variables of interest, control conditions, random assignments, and consideration of experimenter effects.

33
Q

Experimental Variables

A
  1. Independent Variable: Variable that the experimenter manipulates.
  2. Dependent Variable: (depends on independent amount) variable that the experimenter predicts will be affected by manipulations of the independent variable.
34
Q

Experimental Group

A

Participants in an experiment who are exposed to the manipulation of the independent variable

35
Q

Control Group

A

Paticipants in an experiment who are not exposed to the manipulation of the independent variable. May involve a placebo or “fake” treatment. Forms a control conditions for comparison.

36
Q

Random Assignment

A

Must be used in order for experiments to have groups that are similar on key chaactersitics. (procedure for assigning people to experimental and control groups in which each individual has teh same probability as any other of being assigned to a given group.)

37
Q

Experimeter Effects

A

Unintended changes in participants behaviour due to cues inadvertently given by experimenter. Prevent biases through single blind (person receiveing pills doesnt know whether they have a placebo or not) or double blind studies (person giving and recieving pills doesnt know whether or not the patient was given a placebo)

38
Q

Experiment Advantages

A

Experiments allow for conclusions about cause adn affect. They help to detect real effects and strong empirical evidence.

39
Q

Expeiment Limitations

A

Participants may not be representative. Laboratory situations may be artificial (alternate of field research)

40
Q

Evaluating the Findings (3)

A

Once data is collected, psychologists evaluate results in 3 ways:

  1. Describe them
  2. Access how reliable and meaningful they are
  3. Figure out how to explain them
41
Q

Accomplish Evaluation of Findings (3)

A
  1. Descriptive Statistics
  2. Inferential Statistics
  3. Interpretation
42
Q

Descriptive Statistics

A

Statistical procedures that organize and summarize research data ( eg. graphs and charts). Using arithmetic mean and standard mean.

43
Q

Inferential Statistics

A

Statistical procedures that allow researchers to draw inferences about how statistically meaningful a study’s results are.

Most commonly used are significant tests:

  • Indicate how likely a result occurred by chance
  • When likelihood is low, result is said to have statistical significance.
44
Q

Interpreting Findings

A

Determine meanings by using hypotheses and theories to explains how the result of reseach fit together. Involves choosing the best explaination and judging the importances of the results.

45
Q

Cross-Sectional Studies

A

Paricipants of different ages compared at different times

46
Q

Longitudinal Studies

A

Participants periodically reassessed over a period of time.

47
Q

Meta-analysis

A

Combines data from many studies; how much variance in scores across all studies is accounted for by a particular variable comparing studies, results, and seeing why they difer.

48
Q

Effect Size

A

is a measure of how much variability among scores is accounted for by the independent variable.

49
Q

8 Major Ethical Principles

A
  1. Respect for human dignity
  2. Respect for _?_
  3. Respect for vulnerable persons
  4. Respect for privacy and confidentiality
  5. Respect for justic and inclusiveness
  6. Balancing harms and benefits
  7. Minimizing harm
  8. Maximizing benefits
50
Q

Ethics of Studying Humans (5)

A
  1. Must provide informed consent
  2. Freedom to withdraw at any time
  3. Minimize discomfort
  4. Keep data confidential
  5. If deception is necessary, must provide debriefing about true nature of study
51
Q

Ethics of Studying Animals

A

Animals used in psychological research to: conduct baic research; discover practical applications; study issues that cannot be studies experimentally with humans; clarify theoretical questions; improve human welfare. Must abide by ethical codes for humane treatment of animals.

Psychology 121 (10 decks)

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