Chapter 2 Flashcards
5 characteristics of the ideal scientist
- Precision 2. Scepticism 3. Reliance on empirical evidence 4. Willingness to make “risky predictions” 5. Openness
Precision
Following the ‘Scientific Method’
Theory
Organized system of assumptions and principles that purports to explain phenomena and how they are related
Hypothesis
Statement that attempts to predict or account for a set of phenomena; specifies relationships; empirically tested
Operational definition
Define terms in hypotheses by specifying he operations for observing and measuring the process or phenomenon (peer reviews and hypotheses is clear and concise)
Steps of precision
Theory or hunch -> Hypothesis -> Predictions, with operational definitions -> evidence
Skepticism
- Scientists don’t accept ideas based on faith or authority 2. Scepticism means treating conclusions, both old and new with caution 3. Caution balanced with openness to new ideas and evidence
Reliance on Empirical Evidence
This is to determine whether or not a prediction is true and is gathered through various research methods
Willingness to make “risky” predictions
Principle of Falsifiability and Confirmation Bias
Principle of Falsifiability
A scientific theory must make predictions that are specific enough to disconfirm the theory. Predicts not only what will happen but also what will not happen.
Confirmation Bias
Tendency to seek and accept evidence that supports our theories and ignore evidence that contradicts beliefs
The Princible of Falsifiability figure
Openness
Scientists willingness to explain the source of their ideas, how theu tested them, and whta the results were (enough clairty so replication is possible). Peer Reviewed process ensures scientific standards and provides system of checks and balances ( data and conclusions are looked on by peers for feedbacl and advice).
Descriptive Studies
The goal is to describe and predict behaviour but does not allow causal explainations. Essential for all studies is obtaining a representative sample. Example: What happened in the shock study.
Case Studies
A detailed description of a paritcular individual being studied or treated. May be used to formulate broader reearh hypotheses. Most commonly used by clinicians (occasionally by researchers in preliminary stages of inquiry).
Observational Studies
Method where researchers systematically observe and record behaviour without interference. This includes naturalistic observation and laboratory observation.
Naturalistic Observation
Laboratory Observation
Psychological Tests
Psychological tests can be _______ or ________?
Objective or projective
3 Characteristics of a good test.
- Standardization
- Reliability
- Validity
Standardization
When a test is uniform in its procedures and scoring. Tests must be culturally sensitive and fair. Proper scores refere to norms or established standards or performance. (Norms obtained by mass testing on intended populations to determine different score ranges.)
Reliabilty
Is the consistency of scores derived from a test from on time and place to the next or across scorers. There are 2 types of reliability,
- Test-Retest Reliability
- Alternate-Forms Reliability
Validity
Is the ability of a test to measure what it wa designed to measure.
- Face Validity
- Content Validity
- Criterion Validity
E.g. The language in ‘Math Makes Sense’ auses mathematically inclined students to do poorly.
Surveys
Questionnaires and interviews that ask people about experiences, attitudes or opinions. Allows for extensive data collection.
3 Problems with Surveys
- Obtaining representative sample (volunteer basis)
- Truthfullness of responses
- Type and phrasing of questions
** People will generally volunteer if they d things well while others wil not because they do not want to be viewed badly so he representation is not good.
Correlational Studies
A type of decriptive study that looks for a relationship between 2 phenomena
Correlations
Measure of how strongly 2 quantifiable characteristics of behaviour (variables) are realted to one another.
Types of Correlations (2)
- Postitive Correlations: An association between increases in one variable and increases in another.
- Negative Correlations: An association between increases in one variable and decreases in another.
Measuring Correlations
With the correlation coefficient ( a statistical measure of correlation which ranges from -1.00 to +1.00). Often graphed with a scatter plot.
Cautions about Correlations
Correlations are often reported but may be small, nonexistent, or meaningless. Correlations may be misleading and correlations do NOT establish causation!!!
Experiments
A controlled test of a hypothesis in which the researcher manipulates one variable to discover its effects on another. An experiment includes variables of interest, control conditions, random assignments, and consideration of experimenter effects.
Experimental Variables
- Independent Variable: Variable that the experimenter manipulates.
- Dependent Variable: (depends on independent amount) variable that the experimenter predicts will be affected by manipulations of the independent variable.
Experimental Group
Participants in an experiment who are exposed to the manipulation of the independent variable
Control Group
Paticipants in an experiment who are not exposed to the manipulation of the independent variable. May involve a placebo or “fake” treatment. Forms a control conditions for comparison.
Random Assignment
Must be used in order for experiments to have groups that are similar on key chaactersitics. (procedure for assigning people to experimental and control groups in which each individual has teh same probability as any other of being assigned to a given group.)
Experimeter Effects
Unintended changes in participants behaviour due to cues inadvertently given by experimenter. Prevent biases through single blind (person receiveing pills doesnt know whether they have a placebo or not) or double blind studies (person giving and recieving pills doesnt know whether or not the patient was given a placebo)
Experiment Advantages
Experiments allow for conclusions about cause adn affect. They help to detect real effects and strong empirical evidence.
Expeiment Limitations
Participants may not be representative. Laboratory situations may be artificial (alternate of field research)
Evaluating the Findings (3)
Once data is collected, psychologists evaluate results in 3 ways:
- Describe them
- Access how reliable and meaningful they are
- Figure out how to explain them
Accomplish Evaluation of Findings (3)
- Descriptive Statistics
- Inferential Statistics
- Interpretation
Descriptive Statistics
Statistical procedures that organize and summarize research data ( eg. graphs and charts). Using arithmetic mean and standard mean.
Inferential Statistics
Statistical procedures that allow researchers to draw inferences about how statistically meaningful a study’s results are.
Most commonly used are significant tests:
- Indicate how likely a result occurred by chance
- When likelihood is low, result is said to have statistical significance.
Interpreting Findings
Determine meanings by using hypotheses and theories to explains how the result of reseach fit together. Involves choosing the best explaination and judging the importances of the results.
Cross-Sectional Studies
Paricipants of different ages compared at different times
Longitudinal Studies
Participants periodically reassessed over a period of time.
Meta-analysis
Combines data from many studies; how much variance in scores across all studies is accounted for by a particular variable comparing studies, results, and seeing why they difer.
Effect Size
is a measure of how much variability among scores is accounted for by the independent variable.
8 Major Ethical Principles
- Respect for human dignity
- Respect for _?_
- Respect for vulnerable persons
- Respect for privacy and confidentiality
- Respect for justic and inclusiveness
- Balancing harms and benefits
- Minimizing harm
- Maximizing benefits
Ethics of Studying Humans (5)
- Must provide informed consent
- Freedom to withdraw at any time
- Minimize discomfort
- Keep data confidential
- If deception is necessary, must provide debriefing about true nature of study
Ethics of Studying Animals
Animals used in psychological research to: conduct baic research; discover practical applications; study issues that cannot be studies experimentally with humans; clarify theoretical questions; improve human welfare. Must abide by ethical codes for humane treatment of animals.
